{"id":2161415,"date":"2026-11-01T23:36:03","date_gmt":"2026-11-01T22:36:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/?page_id=2161415"},"modified":"2026-11-04T19:39:46","modified_gmt":"2026-11-04T18:39:46","slug":"aviation-law-lawyer-paris","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/aviation-law-lawyer-paris\/","title":{"rendered":"Aviation law lawyer Paris"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"2161415\" class=\"elementor elementor-2161415 elementor-2160726\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7fd52a0 e-con-full e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"7fd52a0\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-89b0043 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"89b0043\" data-element_type=\"widget\" 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.chess-knight{top:295px;height:340px}\n.chess-hero{height:820px;margin-bottom:28px}\n}\n\n@media(min-width:651px){.chess-field{clip-path:none;border-radius:0;mask-image:url(\"data:image\/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%201000%20650%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Cpath%20fill%3D%22white%22%20d%3D%22M38%2052H710Q740%2052%20740%2026Q740%200%20778%200H962Q1000%200%201000%2038V612Q1000%20650%20962%20650H38Q0%20650%200%20612V90Q0%2052%2038%2052Z%22\/%3E%3C\/svg%3E\");mask-size:100% 100%;mask-repeat:no-repeat}}\n\n\/* Groupes de pi\u00e8ces : cadrage large, texte d\u00e9gag\u00e9. *\/\n.chess-group .chess-preview .chess-knight{width:54%;right:0;height:580px;bottom:30px}\n@media(max-width:1000px) and (min-width:651px){.chess-group .chess-preview .chess-knight{width:52%;height:510px}}\n@media(max-width:650px){.chess-group .chess-preview .chess-knight{width:100%;right:0;top:310px;bottom:auto;height:320px}}\n\/* D\u00e9coupe initiale restaur\u00e9e : raccord concave arrondi, sans carte ajout\u00e9e. *\/\n@media(min-width:651px){\n .chess-intro{left:0;bottom:0;background:#f7f8f8;border-radius:0 35px 0 0;padding:30px 28px 25px 20px;max-width:36%}\n .chess-intro::before,.chess-intro::after{content:\"\";position:absolute;width:30px;height:30px;pointer-events:none;background:transparent}\n .chess-intro::before{left:0;top:-30px;border-radius:0 0 0 30px;box-shadow:0 15px 0 0 #f7f8f8}\n .chess-intro::after{right:-30px;bottom:0;border-radius:0 0 0 30px;box-shadow:0 15px 0 0 #f7f8f8}\n .chess-heading{top:115px}\n}\n@media(max-width:1000px) and (min-width:651px){.chess-intro{max-width:43%}.chess-heading{top:145px}}\n@media(min-width:651px){\n .chess-intro::before,.chess-intro::after{border-radius:0;box-shadow:none;background:radial-gradient(circle at 100% 0,transparent 29.5px,#f7f8f8 30px)}\n}\n\/* Raccords concaves : carr\u00e9 de masque complet, sans bord ext\u00e9rieur parasite. *\/\n@media(min-width:651px){\n .chess-intro::before,.chess-intro::after{\n  width:32px;height:32px;\n  background:radial-gradient(circle at 100% 0,transparent 31.5px,#f7f8f8 32px);\n }\n .chess-intro::before{top:-32px;left:0}\n .chess-intro::after{right:-32px;bottom:0}\n}\n\/* Raccord progressif entre la landing et les domaines d\u2019intervention. *\/\nbody:has(.chess-preview) .elementor-754 > .elementor-element-4fdc5e4{\n background:linear-gradient(180deg,#f7f8f8 0px,rgba(247,248,248,.85) 45px,rgba(247,248,248,0) 190px) !important;\n}\n\n\/* Transition du blanc du menu vers le gris de la landing. *\/\n.chess-preview{background:linear-gradient(180deg,#fff 0px,#f7f8f8 120px)!important}\n\n\/* Proposition B \u2014 composition d\u00e9cal\u00e9e. Header et charte partag\u00e9s inchang\u00e9s. *\/\n@media (max-width:650px) {\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-hero {\n    height:650px;\n    margin-bottom:12px;\n    overflow:visible;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-heading {\n    inset:0 auto auto 8px;\n    width:calc(100% - 16px);\n    max-width:none;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-heading h1 {\n    font-family:Lato,Arial,sans-serif!important;\n    font-weight:900!important;\n    font-size:clamp(43px,13.4vw,56px)!important;\n    line-height:.97!important;\n    letter-spacing:-.045em!important;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-title-paris {\n    margin-top:0;\n    font-size:1em;\n    letter-spacing:-.045em;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-motto {\n    width:115px;\n    margin:37px 0 0;\n    font-size:14px;\n    line-height:1.9;\n    letter-spacing:.015em;\n  }\n  \/* Un seul fond : la d\u00e9coupe porte sur son alpha, jamais sur le d\u00e9grad\u00e9. *\/\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-field {\n    inset:229px 0 155px 0;\n    border-radius:0;\n    clip-path:none;\n    background:linear-gradient(155deg,#e8f0f9,#d6e6f4 60%,#e7eaf2);\n    -webkit-mask-image:url(\"data:image\/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%201000%20304%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Cpath%20fill%3D%22white%22%20d%3D%22M555%200H930Q1000%200%201000%2024V277Q1000%20304%20921%20304H73Q0%20304%200%20279V191Q0%20166%2073%20166H288Q370%20166%20370%20138V64Q370%200%20555%200Z%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\");\n    mask-image:url(\"data:image\/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20viewBox%3D%220%200%201000%20304%22%20preserveAspectRatio%3D%22none%22%3E%3Cpath%20fill%3D%22white%22%20d%3D%22M555%200H930Q1000%200%201000%2024V277Q1000%20304%20921%20304H73Q0%20304%200%20279V191Q0%20166%2073%20166H288Q370%20166%20370%20138V64Q370%200%20555%200Z%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\");\n    -webkit-mask-size:100% 100%;\n    mask-size:100% 100%;\n    -webkit-mask-repeat:no-repeat;\n    mask-repeat:no-repeat;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-field::before,\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-field::after {\n    content:none;\n    display:none;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-knight {\n    top:193px;\n    bottom:auto;\n    right:-7px;\n    width:66%;\n    height:302px;\n    object-fit:contain;\n    object-position:center bottom;\n    filter:drop-shadow(7px 16px 13px #243d6225);\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-intro {\n    top:511px;\n    bottom:auto;\n    left:8px;\n    width:calc(100% - 16px);\n    max-width:none;\n    padding:0;\n    border-radius:0;\n    background:transparent;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-intro::before,\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-intro::after { display:none; }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-intro-label {\n    font-size:9px;\n    letter-spacing:.15em;\n  }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-intro p {\n    max-width:320px;\n    margin:9px 0 19px;\n    font-size:13px;\n    line-height:1.5;\n  }\n}\n@media (min-width:480px) and (max-width:650px) {\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-motto { margin-top:25px; }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-knight { width:60%;height:300px;top:195px; }\n}\n@media (max-width:360px) {\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-motto { width:100px;font-size:12px;line-height:2.1; }\n  .mobile-study-b .chess-knight { width:64%; }\n}\n\n\/* Trois placements locaux : typo, image, contours et CTA de B conserv\u00e9s. *\/\n@media(max-width:650px){\n .mobile-study-b1{--title-shift:12px;--motto-top:238px}\n .mobile-study-b2{--title-shift:20px;--motto-top:258px}\n .mobile-study-b3{--title-shift:28px;--motto-top:278px}\n .mobile-study-b1 .chess-heading,.mobile-study-b2 .chess-heading,.mobile-study-b3 .chess-heading{top:var(--title-shift)}\n .mobile-study-b1 .chess-motto,.mobile-study-b2 .chess-motto,.mobile-study-b3 .chess-motto{position:absolute;top:calc(var(--motto-top) - var(--title-shift));left:0;margin:0}\n}\n\/* B2 valid\u00e9e : r\u00e9server toute la hauteur du CTA et de son halo. *\/\n@media(max-width:650px){\n .mobile-study-b2 .chess-hero{height:700px}\n .mobile-study-b2 .chess-field{bottom:auto;height:266px}\n}\n\n\/* \u00c9tudes mobiles uniquement ; menu et logo natifs, disposition plus compacte. *\/\n@media(max-width:650px){\n body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-location-header{height:110px!important;min-height:110px!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo{position:relative!important;top:auto!important;left:auto!important;width:100%!important;height:110px!important;min-height:110px!important;padding:0 20px!important;margin:0!important;display:grid!important;grid-template-columns:1fr auto!important;grid-template-rows:72px 32px!important;gap:0!important;align-items:center!important;background:linear-gradient(#fff,#f7f8f8)!important;backdrop-filter:none!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-26e7aca4{display:flex!important;visibility:visible!important;grid-area:1\/1;min-height:0!important;width:110px!important;padding:0!important;margin:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-5176e41b{width:105px!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-5176e41b img{width:105px!important;height:62px!important;object-fit:contain!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-7f9425b9{display:contents!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-68cc9a0{grid-area:2\/1\/3\/3;width:100%!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .wpml-ls{width:100%!important;padding:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .wpml-ls ul{display:flex!important;justify-content:center!important;gap:11px!important;align-items:center!important;padding:0!important;margin:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .wpml-ls li{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .wpml-ls a{padding:4px!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .wpml-ls img{width:16px!important;height:11px!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-2b355485{grid-area:1\/2;width:auto!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-2b355485 a{display:grid!important;place-items:center!important;width:43px!important;height:43px!important;padding:0!important;border-radius:14px!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-2b355485 svg{width:22px!important;height:22px!important}\n .chess-preview.mobile-study{padding:28px 16px 0!important;background:#f7f8f8!important;display:flow-root}\n .mobile-study .chess-knight{max-width:none}\n .mobile-study .chess-cta{max-width:calc(100vw - 64px)!important}\n .mobile-study .chess-intro-label{color:#6b747c}\n .mobile-study .chess-intro p{color:#40464a}\n}\n@media(max-width:650px){body:has(.fr-chess) .navo.elementor-sticky__spacer{display:none!important}}\n\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo{visibility:visible!important;opacity:1!important;animation:none!important;transform:none!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-hero-wrapper,body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-hero-widget{padding:0!important;margin:0!important;width:100%!important;max-width:none!important;gap:0!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-hero-widget>.elementor-widget-container{margin:0!important;padding:0!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess{display:flow-root}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-heading h1{font-size:clamp(45px,5.2vw,80px)!important;line-height:1!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-heading{top:112px;max-width:54%}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-knight{width:48%;height:640px;right:3%;bottom:0;top:auto;object-fit:contain}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-motto{font-size:clamp(16px,1.6vw,25px)}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) #fr-contact-form{scroll-margin-top:110px}\n@media(max-width:650px){\n body:has(.fr-chess) [data-elementor-type=\"header\"]{height:110px!important;min-height:110px!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-heading{top:20px;max-width:none}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-heading h1{font-size:clamp(37px,11.9vw,50px)!important;line-height:.97!important}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-knight{top:193px;bottom:auto;right:-7px;width:66%;height:302px}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-motto{font-size:12px;width:120px;line-height:2.1;top:238px}\n body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess .chess-intro{max-width:none}\n}\n@media(min-width:651px){\nbody:has(.fr-chess) [data-elementor-type=\"header\"]{height:80px!important;min-height:80px!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo{height:80px!important;padding:0 32px!important;background:linear-gradient(#fff,#f7f8f8)!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-26e7aca4{width:125px!important;min-width:125px!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-5176e41b{width:110px!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-element-5176e41b img{width:110px!important;height:65px!important;object-fit:contain!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess{padding-top:30px}\n}\n\/* Le header natif FR est hors flux : r\u00e9server sa hauteur dans chaque copie. *\/\n@media(max-width:650px){body:has(.fr-chess) .chess-preview.mobile-study{padding-top:138px!important}}\n@media(min-width:651px){body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess{padding-top:80px!important}}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo .elementor-invisible{visibility:visible!important;opacity:1!important;animation:none!important}\n\n@media(max-width:650px){body:has(.fr-chess):not(.home) .chess-preview.mobile-study{padding-top:28px!important}}\n@media(min-width:651px){body:has(.fr-chess):not(.home) .fr-chess{padding-top:0!important}}\n\/* Contenir les carrousels et le footer copi\u00e9s dans la largeur de pr\u00e9visualisation. *\/\n\n@media(max-width:650px){body:has(.fr-chess) .kcf-hero-inner{min-width:0!important;max-width:100%!important}body:has(.fr-chess) .kcf-wrap{min-width:0!important;max-width:100%!important}}\n\/* Raccord menu blanc vers fond gris, sans bande de couleur \u00e0 la jonction. *\/\n@media(max-width:650px){body:has(.fr-chess) .kcf-hero-text,body:has(.fr-chess) .kcf-hero-form{min-width:0!important;width:100%!important;max-width:100%!important}body:has(.fr-chess) .kcf-hero-title,body:has(.fr-chess) .kcf-hero-title-main{white-space:normal!important;overflow-wrap:anywhere}}@media(max-width:650px){body:has(.fr-chess) .hk-footer-avocat{max-width:100%!important}body:has(.fr-chess) .hk-footer-avocat img{max-width:100%!important}}body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-7817ac8,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-7f97ff5,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-62048c2{background-image:linear-gradient(180deg,#f7f8f8 0px,rgba(247,248,248,.85) 45px,rgba(247,248,248,0) 200px)!important}body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-da753e9{background-image:linear-gradient(180deg,#f7f8f8 0px,rgba(247,248,248,.85) 45px,rgba(247,248,248,0) 200px),linear-gradient(180deg,#f5f4f8 0%,#e4eef9 100%)!important}body:has(.fr-chess) .navo{background:#fff!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess{background:linear-gradient(180deg,#fff 0px,#f7f8f8 130px)!important}\n\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-b8c5a8a,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-5abe9b0,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-6667b04,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-b003989,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-990a523,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-c9f42ee,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-263bc05,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-6cc331c{padding:0!important;margin:0!important;width:100%!important;max-width:none!important;gap:0!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .navo{background:#fff!important}body:has(.fr-chess) .fr-chess{background:linear-gradient(180deg,#fff 0px,#f7f8f8 130px)!important}\n@media(max-width:650px){body.home:has(.fr-chess) #content{padding-top:0!important}body.home:has(.fr-chess) .chess-preview.mobile-study{padding-top:138px!important}body:not(.home):has(.fr-chess) .chess-preview.mobile-study{padding-top:28px!important}}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .chess-preview.mobile-study{background:linear-gradient(180deg,#fff 0px,#fff 110px,#f7f8f8 230px)!important}\n@media(max-width:650px){body.fr-hero-visible .kohen-avis-floating{visibility:hidden!important;pointer-events:none!important}}\n\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-7fd52a0,body:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-89b0043{padding:0!important;margin:0!important;width:100%!important;max-width:none!important;gap:0!important}\nbody:has(.fr-chess) .elementor-element-dd1953d{background-image:linear-gradient(180deg,#f7f8f8 0px,rgba(247,248,248,.85) 45px,rgba(247,248,248,0) 200px)!important}\nbody.page-id-1915254 .fr-chess .chess-heading h1{font-size:clamp(42px,4.8vw,74px)!important}\nbody.page-id-1915254 .fr-chess .chess-knight{width:53%;height:530px;bottom:30px;right:0;object-fit:contain}\n@media(max-width:650px){body.page-id-1915254 .fr-chess .chess-heading h1{font-size:clamp(35px,10.8vw,47px)!important}body.page-id-1915254 .fr-chess .chess-knight{top:265px;height:230px;width:85%;right:0;bottom:auto}}\n<\/style><div class=\"chess-preview fr-chess mobile-study mobile-study-b mobile-study-b2\">\n<section aria-labelledby=\"chess-title\" class=\"chess-hero\">\n<div aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"chess-field\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"chess-heading\"><h1 id=\"chess-title\"><span class=\"chess-title-back\">Aviation<\/span>\n<span class=\"chess-title-front\">law<\/span>\n<span class=\"chess-title-front\">lawyer<\/span>\n<span class=\"chess-title-paris\">Paris<\/span>\n<\/h1><p class=\"chess-motto\">Claim. <span>Operate.<\/span> Own.<\/p><\/div>\n<img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Chess knight facing black pieces, an image of strategy in an aviation law case\" class=\"chess-knight\" fetchpriority=\"high\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/kohen-fr-affaires-hero.webp\"\/>\n<div class=\"chess-intro\"><span class=\"chess-intro-label\">YOUR CASE.<\/span><p>Disrupted flight, baggage, freight, penalty or seized aircraft: tell our aviation law lawyer in Paris about the situation and the documents you hold.<\/p><a class=\"chess-cta\" href=\"#kcf-1form\"><span class=\"chess-cta-icon\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"1.6\" viewbox=\"0 0 24 24\"><rect height=\"14\" rx=\"2\" width=\"18\" x=\"3\" y=\"5\"><\/rect><path d=\"m3 6 9 7 9-7\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"chess-cta-text\">Go to the form<\/span><\/a><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div><script id=\"fr-hero-widgets-20260920\">(()=>{const h=document.querySelector('.fr-chess');if(!h||!('IntersectionObserver' in window))return;const mq=matchMedia('(max-width:650px)');let inside=true;const sync=()=>document.body.classList.toggle('fr-hero-visible',mq.matches&&inside);new IntersectionObserver(e=>{inside=e[0].isIntersecting;sync()},{threshold:0}).observe(h);mq.addEventListener('change',sync);sync()})();<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a5f3c09 e-con-full 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100%);color:#1F4FA8;font-family:inherit;font-size:14px;font-weight:600;letter-spacing:.01em;line-height:1.2;text-decoration:none;transition:border-color .2s ease,box-shadow .2s ease,transform .2s ease}.knp a.knp__videos svg{flex:0 0 auto;display:block}.knp a.knp__videos:hover{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#DCEAFB 100%);border-color:#1F4FA8;color:#1F4FA8;box-shadow:0 6px 18px rgba(31,79,168,.14);transform:translateY(-1px)}.knp a.knp__videos:focus-visible{outline:2px solid #1F4FA8;outline-offset:3px}.kcv-press.knp{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:center;align-items:center;column-gap:14px}.kcv-press.knp>.kcv-press-t,.kcv-press.knp>.knp__watchlink{flex:0 0 auto}.kcv-press.knp>.knp__piste{flex:0 0 100%}.kcv-press.knp p.knp__watchlink{margin:0 0 2px;padding:0;line-height:17px}.kcv-press.knp a.knp__videos{gap:5px;padding:0;border:0;border-radius:0;background:none;box-shadow:none;font-size:11.5px;letter-spacing:.02em;line-height:17px;transform:none}.kcv-press.knp a.knp__videos:hover{background:none;box-shadow:none;transform:none}.kcv-press.knp a.knp__videos:hover span{text-decoration:underline;text-underline-offset:3px}.kcv-press.knp a.knp__videos svg{width:13px;height:13px}.knp .knp__vc{display:none}@media (max-width:900px){.kcv-press.knp .knp__vl{display:none}.kcv-press.knp .knp__vc{display:inline}}@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){.knp a.knp__videos{transition:none}.knp a.knp__videos:hover{transform:none}}<\/style><p class=\"knp__watchlink\"><a class=\"knp__videos\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/media\/\" aria-label=\"View the videos and their transcripts\"><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 20 20\" aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\"><circle cx=\"10\" cy=\"10\" r=\"9\" fill=\"#1F4FA8\"\/><path d=\"M8.3 6.4v7.2l5.6-3.6z\" fill=\"#fff\"\/><\/svg><span class=\"knp__vl\">View the videos and their transcripts<\/span><span class=\"knp__vc\">Videos<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"knp__piste\">\n<ul class=\"knp__ruban\" role=\"list\">\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"france-2\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"France 2: watch the report featuring Hassan Kohen\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/france-2.svg\" alt=\"France 2\" style=\"--h:30px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"tf1\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"TF1: watch the news excerpt featuring Hassan Kohen\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/tf1.svg\" alt=\"TF1\" style=\"--h:36px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"france-tv\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"France T\u00e9l\u00e9visions: watch the excerpt featuring Reda Kohen\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/france-tv.svg\" alt=\"France T\u00e9l\u00e9visions\" style=\"--h:28px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"bfm\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"BFMTV: watch the excerpt featuring Reda Kohen\"><img class=\"skip-lazy knp--fixe\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/bfm.svg\" alt=\"BFMTV\" style=\"--h:30px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"le-point\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Le Point: see the 2 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy knp--fixe\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/le-point.svg\" alt=\"Le Point\" style=\"--h:24px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"le-figaro\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Le Figaro Immobilier: see the 3 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/le-figaro.svg\" alt=\"Le Figaro\" style=\"--h:19px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"liberation\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Lib\u00e9ration: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/liberation.svg\" alt=\"Lib\u00e9ration\" style=\"--h:28px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"les-echos\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Les Echos: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/les-echos.svg\" alt=\"Les Echos\" style=\"--h:23px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"20-minutes\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"20 Minutes: see the 12 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy knp--fixe\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/20-minutes.svg\" alt=\"20 Minutes\" style=\"--h:24px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"ouest-france\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Ouest-France: see the 2 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/ouest-france.svg\" alt=\"Ouest-France\" style=\"--h:28px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"franceinfo\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"franceinfo: see the 2 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/franceinfo.svg\" alt=\"franceinfo\" style=\"--h:19px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"actu-fr\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"actu.fr: see the 3 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/actu-fr.svg\" alt=\"actu.fr\" style=\"--h:26px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"marie-claire\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Marie Claire: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/marie-claire.svg\" alt=\"Marie Claire\" style=\"--h:19px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"femme-actuelle\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Femme Actuelle: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/femme-actuelle.svg\" alt=\"Femme Actuelle\" style=\"--h:21px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"psychologies\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Psychologies: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/psychologies.svg\" alt=\"Psychologies\" style=\"--h:21px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"wikipedia\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Wikipedia: view the 4 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/wikipedia.svg\" alt=\"Wikipedia\" style=\"--h:21px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"data-gouv\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"data.gouv.fr: view the 2 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/data-gouv.svg\" alt=\"data.gouv.fr\" style=\"--h:26px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"leboncoin\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Leboncoin: view the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/leboncoin.svg\" alt=\"Leboncoin\" style=\"--h:24px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"pappers\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Pappers: view the 2 publications\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/pappers.svg\" alt=\"Pappers\" style=\"--h:25px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"laforet\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Lafor\u00eat Montesson: view the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/laforet.svg\" alt=\"Lafor\u00eat\" style=\"--h:24px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"economie-matin\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"\u00c9conomie Matin: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/economie-matin.jpg\" alt=\"\u00c9conomie Matin\" style=\"--h:24px;mix-blend-mode:multiply\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/lexbase.png\" alt=\"Lexbase\" style=\"--h:20px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"awwwards\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Awwwards: view the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/awwwards.svg\" alt=\"Awwwards\" style=\"--h:20px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li>\n<li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"la-voix-du-nord\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"La Voix du Nord: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/la-voix-du-nord.svg\" alt=\"La Voix du Nord\" style=\"--h:17px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li><li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" data-media=\"sortir-a-paris\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"Sortir \u00e0 Paris: see the publication\"><img class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/medias-presse\/sortir-a-paris.png\" alt=\"Sortir \u00e0 Paris\" style=\"--h:40px\" decoding=\"async\"><\/button><\/li><li class=\"knp__item\"><button type=\"button\" class=\"knp__logo\" 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d\u00e9noncent le \u00ab pi\u00e8ge de l'indivision \u00bb qui se referme sur les victimes de divorces tr\u00e8s conflictuels\",\"date\":\"2026-07-28\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/immobilier.lefigaro.fr\/article\/elles-denoncent-le-piege-de-l-indivision-qui-se-referme-sur-les-victimes-de-divorces-tres-conflictuels-20260728\",\"citation\":\"Tant que le pr\u00eat n'est pas rembours\u00e9, ren\u00e9goci\u00e9 ou d\u00e9solidaris\u00e9 avec l'accord de la banque, l'engagement bancaire continue.\",\"auteur\":\"Me Hassan Kohen\"},{\"titre\":\"Sa maison est fissur\u00e9e \u00e0 cause de la s\u00e9cheresse, la justice le rend responsable\",\"date\":\"2026-06-18\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/immobilier.lefigaro.fr\/article\/sa-maison-est-fissuree-a-cause-de-la-secheresse-la-justice-le-rend-responsable-20260618\",\"citation\":\"C'est \u00e0 l'assur\u00e9, demandeur \u00e0 l'indemnisation, de rapporter la preuve qu'il a satisfait \u00e0 cette obligation ou que de telles mesures \u00e9taient 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conseille sur son site Internet de proc\u00e9der avec m\u00e9thode en l'absence de mesures suffisantes face \u00e0 une forte chaleur.\",\"auteur\":\"Les Echos\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"ouest-france\":{\"nom\":\"Ouest-France\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Elle a laiss\u00e9 son fils b\u00e2tir sa maison au fond de son terrain, sans rien signer chez le notaire : 20 ans plus tard, \u00e0 la succession, la maison n'\u00e9tait pas \u00e0 lui\",\"date\":\"2026-10-06\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pause-maison.ouest-france.fr\/elle-a-laisse-son-fils-batir-sa-maison-au-fond-de-son-terrain-sans-rien-signer-chez-le-notaire-20-ans-plus-tard-a-la-succession-la-maison-n-etait-pas-a-lui\",\"citation\":\"Selon le cabinet Kohen Avocats, cinq informations doivent \u00eatre r\u00e9unies avant toute analyse.\",\"auteur\":\"Pause Maison, Ouest-France\",\"paraphrase\":true},{\"titre\":\"Auchan devient Lidl : ce que change (ou pas) votre cr\u00e9dit Oney en 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Kohen\"},{\"titre\":\"\u00ab Pour renouer le dialogue c'est rat\u00e9 \u00bb : le sermon du pr\u00e9fet des Hauts-de-Seine aux parents d'\u00e9l\u00e8ves casseurs ne passe pas\",\"date\":\"2026-10-06\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/actu.fr\/ile-de-france\/nanterre_92050\/pour-renouer-le-dialogue-c-est-rate-le-sermon-du-prefet-des-hauts-de-seine-aux-parents-d-eleves-casseurs-ne-passe-pas_64886890.html\",\"citation\":\"Aucun texte ne donne au pr\u00e9fet le pouvoir de convoquer les parents d'un mineur.\",\"auteur\":\"Me Reda Kohen\"},{\"titre\":\"C\u00e9dric Jubillar surpris en plein acte sexuel au parloir : que dit vraiment la loi et ce qu'il risque\",\"date\":\"2026-09-27\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/actu.fr\/societe\/cedric-jubillar-surpris-en-plein-acte-sexuel-au-parloir-que-dit-vraiment-la-loi-et-ce-qu-il-risque_64844675.html\",\"citation\":\"Un confinement ou une mise en cellule disciplinaire de plusieurs jours, parfois assortie du sursis.\",\"auteur\":\"Me Hassan Kohen\"}]},\"marie-claire\":{\"nom\":\"Marie Claire\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Des plafonds de 31 et 62 jours : tout comprendre \u00e0 la nouvelle r\u00e9forme des arr\u00eats de travail\",\"date\":\"2026-09-01\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.marieclaire.fr\/reforme-arret-de-travail-septembre-2026-plafonds-droits-salaries,1519083.asp\",\"citation\":\"Pour une pathologie longue, l'arr\u00eat initial sera suivi de prolongations successives, chacune r\u00e9\u00e9valu\u00e9e par le praticien.\",\"auteur\":\"Me Hassan Kohen\"}]},\"psychologies\":{\"nom\":\"Psychologies\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Ce changement dans la loi sur le consentement pourrait tout changer pour les victimes de viol, et voici pourquoi\",\"date\":\"2025-06-18\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.psychologies.com\/actualites\/societe\/changement-loi-consentement-pourrait-tout-changer-victimes-viol-604168\",\"citation\":\"[\u2026] la charge de la preuve incombe \u00e0 l'accusation, et le doute doit syst\u00e9matiquement profiter 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fra\u00eechement isol\u00e9s juste pour y faire entrer la lumi\u00e8re : un an plus tard, c\u2019est la mairie qui a tout recompt\u00e9\",\"date\":\"2026-10-07\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/maison.20minutes.fr\/mm151832-jai-fait-percer-le-toit-de-mes-combles-fraichement-isoles-juste-pour-y-faire-entrer-la-lumiere-un-an-plus-tard-cest-la-mairie-qui-a-tout-recompte\",\"citation\":\"L'article cite une analyse de kohenavocats.fr parmi ses sources.\",\"auteur\":\"20 Minutes\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"wikipedia\":{\"nom\":\"Wikip\u00e9dia\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Rupture conventionnelle du contrat de travail\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/fr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rupture_conventionnelle_du_contrat_de_travail\",\"citation\":\"Le cabinet y est cit\u00e9 en r\u00e9f\u00e9rence : \u00ab La rupture conventionnelle \u00e0 l'\u00e9preuve de la loi du 11 juin 2026 : l'inflexion d'un dispositif entre libert\u00e9 contractuelle et ma\u00eetrise des deniers publics 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l'\u00c9tat.\",\"auteur\":\"data.gouv.fr\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la fiche sur data.gouv.fr\"},{\"titre\":\"Commentaires des d\u00e9cisions de justice par l'IA g\u00e9n\u00e9rative\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.data.gouv.fr\/reuses\/commentaires-des-decisions-de-justice-par-lia-generative\",\"citation\":\"R\u00e9utilisation des donn\u00e9es publiques de justice publi\u00e9e par Kohen Avocats et r\u00e9f\u00e9renc\u00e9e sur data.gouv.fr.\",\"auteur\":\"data.gouv.fr\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la r\u00e9utilisation sur data.gouv.fr\"}]},\"awwwards\":{\"nom\":\"Awwwards\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Kohen Avocats, site nomm\u00e9 aux Awwwards\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.awwwards.com\/sites\/kohen-avocats\",\"citation\":\"Le site du cabinet figure parmi les sites nomm\u00e9s (\u00ab Nominee \u00bb) par Awwwards, r\u00e9f\u00e9rence internationale du design web.\",\"auteur\":\"Awwwards\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la fiche sur 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\u00e0 la location ?\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.leboncoin.fr\/guide\/immobilier\/bouilloires-thermiques-bientot-interdites-a-la-location-hfpj70o6.html\",\"citation\":\"Le guide immobilier cite une analyse de kohenavocats.fr parmi ses sources.\",\"auteur\":\"Leboncoin\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"femme-actuelle\":{\"nom\":\"Femme Actuelle\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"S\u00e9paration ou divorce : quelle banque et quel cr\u00e9dit pour repartir sur de bonnes bases ?\",\"date\":\"2026-09-30\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.femmeactuelle.fr\/vie-pratique\/news-vie-pratique\/separation-ou-divorce-quelle-banque-et-quel-credit-pour-repartir-sur-de-bonnes-bases-2211980\",\"citation\":\"L'article cite une analyse de kohenavocats.com parmi ses sources.\",\"auteur\":\"Femme Actuelle\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"economie-matin\":{\"nom\":\"\u00c9conomie Matin\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Nouveau bail 2026 : ce que les propri\u00e9taires doivent anticiper d\u00e8s maintenant\",\"date\":\"2026-09-10\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.economiematin.fr\/bail-nouveau-2026-proprietaires-anticiper\",\"citation\":\"Sur le d\u00e9cret n\u00b0 2026-596 du 7 juillet 2026, l'article renvoie \u00e0 l'analyse publi\u00e9e par le cabinet.\",\"auteur\":\"\u00c9conomie Matin\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"la-voix-du-nord\":{\"nom\":\"La Voix du Nord\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Que risquent les personnes qui ach\u00e8tent des objets vol\u00e9s le 17 octobre ?\",\"date\":\"2026-10-19\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.lavoixdunord.fr\/1747700\/article\/2026-10-19\/que-risquent-les-personnes-qui-achetent-des-objets-voles-le-17-octobre\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019infraction suppose la connaissance de l\u2019origine : savoir que l\u2019objet provient d\u2019un vol.\",\"auteur\":\"Me Hassan Kohen\"}]},\"sortir-a-paris\":{\"nom\":\"Sortir \u00e0 Paris\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Manifestation du 24 octobre \u00e0 Paris : parcours, nouvelles stations ferm\u00e9es, les infos\",\"date\":\"2026-10-20\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.sortiraparis.com\/actualites\/a-paris\/articles\/355171-manifestation-du-24-octobre-a-paris-parcours-nouvelles-stations-fermees-les-infos\",\"citation\":\"Sur le d\u00e9lai de d\u00e9claration d\u2019une manifestation \u00e0 Paris, l\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 l\u2019analyse du cabinet, pr\u00e9sent\u00e9 comme \u00ab un avocat p\u00e9naliste parisien \u00bb.\",\"auteur\":\"Sortir \u00e0 Paris\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"science-et-vie\":{\"nom\":\"Science \\u0026 Vie\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Canicule : sans climatisation, ces quelques gestes simples permettraient de faire chuter la temp\u00e9rature de votre logement\",\"date\":\"2026-07-07\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.science-et-vie.com\/nature-et-environnement\/climat\/canicule-sans-climatisation-quelques-gestes-simples-permettraient-de-faire-chuter-la-temperature-de-votre-logement-247975.html\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 deux analyses du cabinet : l\u2019obligation de d\u00e9livrer un logement d\u00e9cent pendant toute la dur\u00e9e du bail et l\u2019ordonnance du tribunal judiciaire de B\u00e9ziers du 31 mars 2026 sur une climatisation install\u00e9e sans autorisation.\",\"auteur\":\"Science \\u0026 Vie\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"frandroid\":{\"nom\":\"Frandroid\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Fin de Rakuten France : comment r\u00e9cup\u00e9rer vos factures, vos garanties et vos points Club R\",\"date\":\"2026-09-30\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.frandroid.com\/culture-tech\/web\/3266559_fin-de-rakuten-france-comment-recuperer-vos-factures-vos-garanties-et-vos-points-club-r\",\"citation\":\"Le cabinet Kohen Avocats leur conseille de retirer cet argent et de t\u00e9l\u00e9charger tout leur historique avant le 10 novembre.\",\"auteur\":\"Frandroid\",\"paraphrase\":true},{\"titre\":\"Goutte-\u00e0-goutte et inondation : que faire quand la climatisation du voisin ruine votre terrasse ?\",\"date\":\"2026-07-28\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.frandroid.com\/produits-android\/maison-connectee\/climatiseur\/3196305_goutte-a-goutte-et-inondation-que-faire-quand-la-climatisation-du-voisin-ruine-votre-terrasse\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 la grille de lecture juridique publi\u00e9e par le cabinet sur les condensats de climatisation en copropri\u00e9t\u00e9.\",\"auteur\":\"Frandroid\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"magicmaman\":{\"nom\":\"Magicmaman\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Vous vivez en immeuble et vous n\u2019avez toujours pas de chauffage cet automne ? Voil\u00e0 pourquoi\",\"date\":\"2026-10-25\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.magicmaman.com\/vous-vivez-en-immeuble-et-vous-n-avez-toujours-pas-de-chauffage-cet-automne-voila-pourquoi,3787269.asp\",\"citation\":\"Cette date nationale n\u2019existe pas. La loi ne fixe pas un calendrier d\u2019allumage commun \u00e0 tous les immeubles.\",\"auteur\":\"Cabinet Kohen Avocats\"}]},\"selectra\":{\"nom\":\"Selectra\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Reflet des panneaux solaires du voisin : l\u2019argument qui a d\u00e9j\u00e0 fait condamner un propri\u00e9taire \u00e0 les retirer\",\"date\":\"2026-09-24\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/selectra.info\/energie\/actualites\/marche\/panneaux-solaires-voisin-eblouissement\",\"citation\":\"Sur l\u2019arr\u00eat de la cour d\u2019appel de N\u00eemes du 3 avril 2025 (n\u00b0 22\/02456), l\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 l\u2019analyse publi\u00e9e par le cabinet.\",\"auteur\":\"Selectra\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"next\":{\"nom\":\"Next\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Fin de Bloctel, interdiction du d\u00e9marchage d\u00e8s le 11 ao\u00fbt : on fait le point\",\"date\":\"2026-08-04\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/next.ink\/249950\/fin-de-bloctel-interdiction-du-demarchage-des-le-11-aout-on-fait-le-point\/\",\"citation\":\"Selon le cabinet Kohen Avocats, les jurisprudences dans ce secteur devraient \u00ab \u00e9clairer la port\u00e9e du futur r\u00e9gime \u00bb.\",\"auteur\":\"Next\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"actu-juridique\":{\"nom\":\"Actu-Juridique\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Magistrature et franc-ma\u00e7onnerie : que dit le droit ?\",\"date\":\"2026-09-22\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.actu-juridique.fr\/professions\/magistrats\/magistrature-et-franc-maconnerie-stupeur-et-evitements\/\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019article cite en r\u00e9f\u00e9rence l\u2019analyse de Ma\u00eetre Hassan Kohen, avocat en droit p\u00e9nal \u00e0 Paris, sur l\u2019avis du Coll\u00e8ge de d\u00e9ontologie du 9 juin 2026.\",\"auteur\":\"Actu-Juridique\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"batiweb\":{\"nom\":\"Batiweb\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Mayotte : Lecornu veut un \u00ab choc de mises en chantier \u00bb\",\"date\":\"2026-08-27\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.batiweb.com\/actualites\/urbanisme\/reconstruction-mayotte-lecornu-choc-mises-chantier-49208\",\"citation\":\"Sur les autorisations d\u2019urbanisme n\u00e9cessaires \u00e0 la reconstruction de Mayotte, l\u2019article cite les explications de Me Reda Kohen.\",\"auteur\":\"Batiweb\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"berliner-zeitung\":{\"nom\":\"Berliner Zeitung\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Null Euro Miete, daf\u00fcr Quizabende mit Rentnern: Wie eine 18-J\u00e4hrige ins Seniorenheim zog\",\"date\":\"2026-09-21\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.berliner-zeitung.de\/article\/null-euro-miete-dafuer-quizabende-mit-rentnern-wie-eine-18-jaehrige-ins-seniorenheim-zog-10414380\",\"citation\":\"Der Pariser Anwalt Reda Kohen ordnet das Modell als Gebrauchsleihe ein: Die Wohnung wird \u00fcberlassen, nicht vermietet.\",\"auteur\":\"Berliner Zeitung\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"startupitalia\":{\"nom\":\"StartupItalia\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Quasi 13 miliardi di dollari di Nvidia per la sconosciuta Hugging Face. Chi vende picconi decide di comprare la miniera\",\"date\":\"2026-09-04\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/startupitalia.eu\/tech\/tredici-miliardi-per-unazienda-sconosciuta-ecco-su-cosa-si-basa-la-scommessa-di-nvidia-con-hugging-face\/\",\"citation\":\"Come ha ricostruito l\u2019avvocato parigino Reda Kohen, la competenza di Bruxelles non dipende dal prezzo ma dai fatturati delle parti.\",\"auteur\":\"StartupItalia\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"beincrypto\":{\"nom\":\"BeInCrypto\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"France Wants to Tax Crypto Holders Before They Sell\",\"date\":\"2026-10-11\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/beincrypto.com\/france-crypto-exit-tax-unsold-gains\/\",\"citation\":\"Left-wing deputy Nicolas Sansu filed it with 16 co-signers, and the National Assembly\u2019s finance committee adopted it on October 8, according to a Paris law firm.\",\"auteur\":\"BeInCrypto\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"kucoin\":{\"nom\":\"KuCoin\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"France Proposes Exit Tax on Crypto Holders with Over \u20ac800,000 in Unrealized Gains\",\"date\":\"2026-10-11\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.kucoin.com\/news\/flash\/france-proposes-exit-tax-on-crypto-holders-with-over-800-000-in-unrealized-gains\",\"citation\":\"Left-wing deputy Nicolas Sansu filed it with 16 co-signers, and the National Assembly\u2019s finance committee adopted it on October 8, according to a Paris law firm.\",\"auteur\":\"KuCoin\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"finst\":{\"nom\":\"Finst\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"France Wants to Tax Crypto Before You Sell\",\"date\":\"2026-10-11\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/news.finst.com\/en\/articles\/france-wants-to-tax-crypto-before-sale\",\"citation\":\"According to a Paris law firm, the National Assembly's finance committee approved the plan on October 8.\",\"auteur\":\"Finst\",\"paraphrase\":true}]}}<\/script>\n<script nowprocket data-no-optimize=\"1\" data-no-defer=\"1\">\n(function(){\nvar EN=!\/^fr\/i.test(document.documentElement.lang||'fr');\nvar 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style=\"object-fit:cover;object-position:50% 50%;\">\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"opt-card-content\">\n                <span class=\"opt-top\">Lawyer<\/span>\n                <h3 class=\"opt-title\">CANCELLED OR DELAYED FLIGHT<\/h3>\n                <span class=\"opt-bottom\">Paris<\/span>\n            <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/air-accident-lawyer-paris\/\" class=\"opt-card\">\n            <div class=\"opt-card-bg\">\n                <img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-76-800.webp\" srcset=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-76-400.webp 400w, https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-76-800.webp 800w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width:767px) 280px,320px\" width=\"800\" height=\"800\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Plane crash lawyer Paris\" style=\"object-fit:cover;object-position:50% 50%;\">\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"opt-card-content\">\n                <span class=\"opt-top\">Lawyer<\/span>\n                <h3 class=\"opt-title\">PLANE CRASH<\/h3>\n                <span class=\"opt-bottom\">Paris<\/span>\n            <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/business-law-attorneys-paris-75017\/insurance-lawyer\/\" class=\"opt-card\">\n            <div class=\"opt-card-bg\">\n                <img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-82-800.webp\" srcset=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-82-400.webp 400w, https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-82-800.webp 800w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width:767px) 280px,320px\" width=\"800\" height=\"1073\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Insurance lawyer Paris\" style=\"object-fit:cover;object-position:50% 50%;\">\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"opt-card-content\">\n                <span class=\"opt-top\">Lawyer<\/span>\n                <h3 class=\"opt-title\">INSURANCE<\/h3>\n                <span class=\"opt-bottom\">Paris<\/span>\n            <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/business-law-attorneys-paris-75017\/\" class=\"opt-card\">\n            <div class=\"opt-card-bg\">\n                <img loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-01-800.webp\" srcset=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-01-400.webp 400w, https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/echecs-cartes-plein-cadre-20261011\/echecs-plein-01-800.webp 800w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width:767px) 280px,320px\" width=\"800\" height=\"1131\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Business law lawyer Paris\" style=\"object-fit:cover;object-position:50% 50%;\">\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"opt-card-content\">\n                <span class=\"opt-top\">Lawyer<\/span>\n                <h3 class=\"opt-title\">BUSINESS LAW<\/h3>\n                <span class=\"opt-bottom\">Paris<\/span>\n            <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<style>\n#slider-contentieux-seo {\n    position: relative;\n    width: 100%;\n    max-width: 100%;\n    margin: 0 auto;\n    padding-bottom: 20px;\n    background: transparent;\n    font-family: 'Lato', sans-serif !important;\n    box-sizing: border-box;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo * {\n    box-sizing: border-box;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-section-header {\n    text-align: center;\n    padding: 30px 20px 40px 20px;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-section-header h2 {\n    font-family: 'Lato', sans-serif !important;\n    font-weight: 400 !important;\n    font-size: clamp(20px, 2vw, 30px) !important;\n    color: #212121 !important;\n    margin: 0 !important;\n    line-height: 1.2 !important;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .highlight {\n    color: #E09019 !important;\n    font-style: italic;\n    font-weight: 700;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .custom-slider-scroll {\n    display: flex;\n    overflow-x: auto;\n    gap: 15px;\n    padding: 20px 40px 60px 40px;\n    scroll-snap-type: x mandatory;\n    -webkit-overflow-scrolling: touch;\n    scroll-behavior: smooth;\n    scrollbar-width: none;\n    -ms-overflow-style: none;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .custom-slider-scroll::-webkit-scrollbar {\n    display: none;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .slider-arrow {\n    position: absolute;\n    top: 55%;\n    transform: translateY(-50%);\n    background: transparent !important;\n    border: none !important;\n    outline: none !important;\n    box-shadow: none !important;\n    padding: 0 !important;\n    margin: 0 !important;\n    cursor: pointer;\n    z-index: 20;\n    transition: transform 0.2s ease;\n    display: block !important;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .arrow-left {\n    left: 15px;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .arrow-right {\n    right: 15px;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .slider-arrow:hover {\n    transform: translateY(-50%) scale(1.05);\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .slider-arrow:active {\n    transform: translateY(-50%) scale(0.95);\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card {\n    position: relative;\n    flex: 0 0 auto;\n    width: 320px !important;\n    height: 462px !important;\n    border-radius: 50px !important;\n    overflow: hidden;\n    text-decoration: none !important;\n    scroll-snap-align: start;\n    background-color: #f0f0f0;\n    box-shadow: 0 4px 44px rgba(0,0,0,0.1);\n    transition: box-shadow 0.3s ease;\n    border: none !important;\n    margin: 0 !important;\n}\n\n@media (min-width: 1025px) {\n    #slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card:hover {\n        box-shadow: 0 4px 25px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);\n    }\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card-bg {\n    position: absolute;\n    inset: 0;\n    z-index: 0;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card-bg img {\n    width: 100%;\n    height: 100%;\n    object-fit: cover;\n    transition: transform 0.5s ease;\n    border-radius: 50px !important;\n    margin: 0 !important;\n    padding: 0 !important;\n    display: block !important;\n}\n\n@media (min-width: 1025px) {\n    #slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card:hover .opt-card-bg img {\n        transform: scale(1.05);\n    }\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card-content {\n    position: relative;\n    z-index: 2;\n    width: 100%;\n    height: 100%;\n    padding: 30px 20px;\n    display: flex;\n    flex-direction: column;\n    justify-content: space-between;\n    align-items: center;\n    text-align: center;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-top,\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-bottom {\n    font-family: 'Lato', sans-serif !important;\n    font-size: 12px !important;\n    font-weight: 300 !important;\n    text-transform: uppercase !important;\n    letter-spacing: 0.44em !important;\n    color: #000000 !important;\n    line-height: 1 !important;\n}\n\n#slider-contentieux-seo .opt-title {\n    font-family: 'Lato', sans-serif !important;\n    font-size: 13px !important;\n    font-weight: 700 !important;\n    text-transform: uppercase !important;\n    color: #000000 !important;\n    margin: 0 !important;\n    padding: 0 !important;\n    line-height: 1.7 !important;\n    letter-spacing: 0.44em !important;\n    white-space: normal !important;\n    text-shadow: none !important;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 767px) {\n    #slider-contentieux-seo .slider-arrow {\n        display: none !important;\n    }\n\n    #slider-contentieux-seo .custom-slider-scroll {\n        padding: 20px 20px 40px 20px;\n        gap: 15px;\n    }\n\n    #slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card {\n        width: 280px !important;\n        height: 378px !important;\n    }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<script>\ndocument.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() {\n    const wrapper = document.getElementById('slider-contentieux-seo');\n    if (!wrapper) return;\n\n    const container = wrapper.querySelector('.custom-slider-scroll');\n    const leftBtn = wrapper.querySelector('.arrow-left');\n    const rightBtn = wrapper.querySelector('.arrow-right');\n\n    if (!container || !leftBtn || !rightBtn) return;\n\n    const scrollAmount = 335;\n\n    rightBtn.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n        e.preventDefault();\n        container.scrollBy({ left: scrollAmount, behavior: 'smooth' });\n    });\n\n    leftBtn.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n        e.preventDefault();\n        container.scrollBy({ left: -scrollAmount, behavior: 'smooth' });\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\n<style id=\"kohen-affaires-labels-20260920\">\n\/* kohen-affaires-labels-20260920: lisibilit\u00e9 des titres *\/\n.elementor #slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card .opt-title{position:relative;z-index:2;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:100%;padding:13px 15px!important;border-radius:24px;background:rgba(255,255,255,.78);backdrop-filter:blur(8px);-webkit-backdrop-filter:blur(8px);box-shadow:0 1px 10px rgba(45,69,99,.035);color:#1d1d1f!important;letter-spacing:.27em!important;line-height:1.7!important;overflow-wrap:anywhere}\n@media(hover:hover){.elementor #slider-contentieux-seo .opt-card:hover .opt-title{background:rgba(255,255,255,.9)}}\n<\/style>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ba20d0d e-con-full e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"ba20d0d\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0c54797 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"0c54797\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- kccm-reprise-2246-20261019 -->\n<style id=\"kccm-20261019\">\n@keyframes knp-defile{from{transform:translateX(0)}to{transform:translateX(-50%)}}\n.kccm .kcv{ font-family:'Lato',sans-serif; color:#1D1D1F; width:100%; overflow-x:clip; -webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased; }\n.kccm .kcv *{ box-sizing:border-box; }\n.kccm .kcv a{ color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv-in{ max-width:1240px; margin:0 auto; padding:0 20px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kk{ font-size:12px; font-weight:700; text-transform:uppercase; letter-spacing:.14em; color:#E09019; margin:0 0 14px; }\n.kccm .kcv h1 em,.kccm .kcv h2 em{ font-style:italic; font-weight:600; color:#E09019; }\n.kccm .kcv-head{ text-align:center; max-width:920px; margin:0 auto; }\n.kccm .kcv h1{ font-family:'Lato',sans-serif; font-weight:900; font-size:clamp(34px,5.4vw,66px); line-height:1.03; letter-spacing:-.034em; margin:0 auto 18px; color:#1D1D1F; text-wrap:balance; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-tail{ display:block; font-weight:300; font-size:.44em; letter-spacing:-.01em; line-height:1.3; color:#3A4A5E; margin-top:14px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-sub{ font-size:18px; line-height:1.65; color:#3A4A5E; max-width:720px; margin:0 auto 28px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-urg{ font-size:14px; color:#5a6275; margin:18px auto 0; }\n.kccm .kcv-btns{ display:flex; flex-wrap:wrap; gap:18px; justify-content:center; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb{ position:relative; isolation:isolate; display:inline-flex; align-items:center; gap:14px; height:64px; padding:7px 26px 7px 8px; border-radius:999px; text-decoration:none !important; color:#16191E !important; font-family:'Lato',sans-serif; font-size:16px; font-weight:700; line-height:1.15; text-align:left;\n  background:conic-gradient(from 280deg,#F5F7FA 0deg,#CCD7E4 40deg,#FFFFFF 80deg,#F6DFB3 85deg,#D4E8FC 92deg,#E0E5ED 150deg,#BACDDE 185deg,#FFFFFF 202deg,#F3E6C8 206deg,#CCEBF1 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background:repeating-conic-gradient(from 35deg, transparent 0deg, #79F5A5 18deg, transparent 29deg, transparent 80deg, #BAFBD1 92deg, transparent 106deg); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb-tel .kcv-fb-orb::after{ border:1px solid #25D366; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb-mail .kcv-fb-orb{ background:radial-gradient(at 30% 15%, rgba(214,232,255,.45), transparent 45%), linear-gradient(145deg,#3D86F5,#1F4FA8); border:1px solid #A9C8F5; box-shadow:inset 0 1px 3px #DDEBFF, 0 0 16px rgba(46,107,216,.45); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb-mail .kcv-fb-orb::before{ background:repeating-conic-gradient(from 35deg, transparent 0deg, #8EB8FF 18deg, transparent 29deg, transparent 80deg, #C9DEFF 92deg, transparent 106deg); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb-mail .kcv-fb-orb::after{ border:1px solid #2E6BD8; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb-txt{ display:flex; flex-direction:column; gap:3px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb-n{ font-size:12.5px; font-weight:400; color:#4A5568; letter-spacing:.01em; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-fb:active .kcv-fb-orb{ transform:scale(.96); }\n@keyframes kcv-flow{ to { transform:rotate(360deg); } }\n@keyframes kcv-wave{ 0% { transform:scale(1); opacity:.7; } 80%,100% { transform:scale(1.45); opacity:0; } }\n.kccm .kcv-media{ position:absolute; inset:0; z-index:-1; display:block; background:#DCEAFB var(--kcv-img) 100% 60% \/ cover no-repeat; }\n@media (max-width:760px){.kccm .kcv-media{ background-image:var(--kcv-img-m); background-position:80% 60%; bottom:auto; height:170px; }}\n.kccm .kcv-media img{ width:100%; height:100%; object-fit:cover; object-position:100% 60%; display:block; border-radius:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-glass{ background:linear-gradient(145deg,rgba(255,255,255,.70) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,.48) 100%); -webkit-backdrop-filter:blur(18px) saturate(170%); backdrop-filter:blur(18px) saturate(170%); border:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.8); box-shadow:inset 0 1px 0 rgba(255,255,255,.95), inset 0 -1px 0 rgba(255,255,255,.35), 0 24px 60px rgba(16,32,64,.16); }\n@supports not ((backdrop-filter:blur(2px)) or (-webkit-backdrop-filter:blur(2px))){.kccm .kcv-glass{ background:rgba(255,255,255,.95); }}\n.kccm .kcv-chip{ border-radius:20px; padding:14px 18px; display:flex; align-items:center; gap:12px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip p{ margin:0; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-n{ font-size:30px; font-weight:900; letter-spacing:-.03em; line-height:1; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-x{ font-size:12.5px; line-height:1.35; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-press-t{ margin:0 0 2px; text-align:center; font-size:11.5px; font-weight:700; letter-spacing:.16em; text-transform:uppercase; color:#5a6275; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-press-t em{ font-style:normal; color:#E09019; }\n.kccm .kcv-tabs{ padding:96px 0 56px; background:\n  radial-gradient(900px 420px at 88% 10%, rgba(46,107,216,.08), transparent 65%),\n  radial-gradient(800px 420px at 8% 60%, rgba(224,144,25,.06), transparent 65%),\n  linear-gradient(180deg,#EEF3FA 0%,#F5F8FC 48%,#FFFFFF 100%); }\n.kccm .kcv-tabs-head{ text-align:center; max-width:900px; margin:0 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text-transform:none; letter-spacing:0; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-t:hover{ color:#1D1D1F !important; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-t.on{ background:#FFFFFF !important; color:#1D1D1F !important; box-shadow:0 6px 16px rgba(16,32,64,.10) !important; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-t:focus-visible{ outline:2px solid #2E6BD8; outline-offset:2px; }\n.kccm .kcv-slide{ background:rgba(255,255,255,.86); border:1px solid #DCE6F2; border-radius:30px; padding:52px 64px; box-shadow:0 24px 60px rgba(16,32,64,.07); scroll-margin-top:110px; }\n.kccm .kcv-slide + .kcv-slide{ margin-top:24px; }\n.kccm .kcv.js .kcv-slide + .kcv-slide{ margin-top:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-slide[hidden]{ display:none !important; }\n.kccm .kcv-slide > .kk,.kccm .kcv-slide > h2,.kccm .kcv-slide > .kcv-lead{ text-align:center; }\n.kccm .kcv-slide > h2{ margin-bottom:16px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-lead{ font-size:18px; line-height:1.7; color:#3A4A5E; max-width:780px; margin:0 auto 30px; }\n.kccm .kcv h3{ font-family:'Lato',sans-serif; font-size:20px; font-weight:700; line-height:1.3; color:#1D1D1F; margin:30px 0 10px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-p{ font-size:17px; line-height:1.75; color:#1D1D1F; margin:0 0 16px; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:420px minmax(0,1fr); gap:56px; align-items:start; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-photo{ position:relative; margin:0; border-radius:26px; overflow:hidden; box-shadow:0 30px 60px rgba(16,32,64,.16); background:#EEF3FA; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-photo img{ display:block; width:100%; height:auto; aspect-ratio:1122\/1402; object-fit:cover; border-radius:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-cap{ font-style:normal; position:absolute; left:16px; right:16px; bottom:16px; border-radius:18px; padding:14px 18px; display:flex; flex-direction:column; gap:2px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-pro-capn{ font-size:17px; font-weight:700; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-pro-capr{ font-size:13.5px; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-body{ padding-top:10px; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-body > h2{ font-size:38px; margin-bottom:18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-tags{ list-style:none; margin:0 0 24px; padding:0; display:flex; flex-wrap:wrap; gap:8px; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro-tags li{ margin:0; padding:8px 14px; border-radius:999px; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; font-size:13.5px; font-weight:600; color:#3A4A5E; box-shadow:inset 0 1px 0 #FFFFFF, 0 4px 10px rgba(16,32,64,.05); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-pro-meta{ margin:20px 0 0; padding-top:18px; border-top:1px solid #DCE6F2; display:flex; flex-wrap:wrap; gap:6px 18px; font-size:14.5px; color:#5a6275; }\n.kccm .kcv-pro + .kcv-cards{ margin-top:40px; }\n.kccm .kcv-profile{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:150px minmax(0,1fr); gap:34px; align-items:center; }\n.kccm .kcv-photo img{ width:150px; height:auto; aspect-ratio:1122\/1402; object-fit:cover; border-radius:18px; display:block; }\n.kccm .kcv-profile h2{ font-size:32px; margin-bottom:10px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-nm{ font-size:18px; font-weight:700; margin:0 0 4px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-mt{ font-size:14.5px; color:#5a6275; margin:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-rule{ height:1px; background:linear-gradient(90deg,#CFDEF0 0%,rgba(207,222,240,0) 100%); margin:28px 0; }\n.kccm .kcv-cards{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:repeat(3,minmax(0,1fr)); gap:18px; margin-top:24px; }\n.kccm .kcv-card{ background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F6FAFF 100%); border:1px solid #DCE6F2; border-radius:18px; padding:24px 24px 26px; }\n.kccm .kcv-card h3{ margin:0 0 8px; font-size:17.5px; }\n.kccm .kcv-card p{ margin:0; font-size:15px; line-height:1.62; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-conds{ counter-reset:c; list-style:none; margin:14px 0 22px; padding:0; display:grid; grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; gap:12px; }\n.kccm .kcv-conds li{ counter-increment:c; position:relative; padding:16px 18px 16px 58px; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; border-radius:16px; font-size:15.5px; line-height:1.55; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-conds li strong{ color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv-conds li::before{ content:counter(c); position:absolute; left:16px; top:15px; width:28px; height:28px; border-radius:50%; background:linear-gradient(135deg,#1F4FA8,#2E6BD8); color:#FFF; font-weight:700; font-size:14px; display:flex; align-items:center; justify-content:center; }\n.kccm .kcv-vs{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; gap:18px; margin:4px 0 18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-vs-col{ background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; border-radius:18px; padding:22px 24px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-vs-t{ font-weight:700; font-size:17px; margin:0 0 10px; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv-vs ul{ margin:0; padding-left:18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-vs li{ font-size:15.5px; line-height:1.6; color:#3A4A5E; margin:0 0 8px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-note{ margin:0 0 6px; padding:16px 20px; border-radius:14px; background:#FFF8EC; border-left:3px solid #E09019; font-size:15.5px; line-height:1.6; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-tl{ list-style:none; margin:10px 0 26px; padding:0 0 0 30px; position:relative; }\n.kccm .kcv-tl::before{ content:\"\"; position:absolute; left:9px; top:6px; bottom:6px; width:2px; background:linear-gradient(180deg,#2E6BD8,#CFDEF0); }\n.kccm .kcv-tl li{ position:relative; margin:0 0 18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-tl li::before{ content:\"\"; position:absolute; left:-27px; top:4px; width:14px; height:14px; border-radius:50%; background:#FFF; border:3px solid #1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-tl-t{ font-weight:700; margin:0 0 3px; font-size:16.5px; }\n.kccm .kcv-tl li p{ margin:0; font-size:15.5px; line-height:1.6; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-check{ list-style:none; margin:0 0 24px; padding:0; display:grid; grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; gap:10px; }\n.kccm .kcv-check li{ display:flex; gap:10px; align-items:flex-start; background:#FFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; border-radius:14px; padding:13px 15px; font-size:15px; line-height:1.5; }\n.kccm .kcv-check svg{ flex:none; margin-top:2px; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details{ background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; border-radius:16px; padding:17px 20px; margin:10px 0; transition:border-color .2s ease; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details:hover,.kccm .kcv-faq details[open]{ border-color:#9fc0e8; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq summary{ cursor:pointer; font-weight:700; font-size:16.5px; list-style:none; display:flex; justify-content:space-between; gap:14px; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq summary::-webkit-details-marker{ display:none; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq summary::after{ content:\"+\"; color:#E09019; font-weight:600; font-size:22px; line-height:1; flex:none; transition:transform .25s ease; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details[open] summary::after{ transform:rotate(45deg); }\n.kccm .kcv-faq .a{ margin-top:12px; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq .a p{ font-size:15.5px; line-height:1.7; color:#3A4A5E; margin:0 0 10px; }\n.kccm .kcv-src{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; gap:18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-links{ margin:0 0 12px; padding-left:18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-links li{ margin:0 0 6px; font-size:15px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-small{ font-size:13.5px; color:#5a6275; margin:10px 0 0; }\n.kccm .kcv-chips-l,.kccm .kcv-src .kcv-chips{ display:flex; flex-wrap:wrap; gap:8px; margin-top:6px; padding:0; background:none; border:0; box-shadow:none; -webkit-backdrop-filter:none; backdrop-filter:none; overflow:visible; }\n.kccm .kcv-src .kcv-chips a{ display:inline-block; background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#E6EEF8 100%); border:1px solid #CFDEF0; color:#1F4FA8; border-radius:999px; padding:9px 15px; font-size:14px; font-weight:600; text-decoration:none; }\n.kccm .kcv-src .kcv-chips a:hover{ border-color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-center{ text-align:center; }\n.kccm .kcv-stats{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:repeat(4,minmax(0,1fr)); gap:14px; margin:6px 0 40px; }\n.kccm .kcv-stat{ position:relative; overflow:hidden; padding:22px 22px 20px; border-radius:20px; background:linear-gradient(150deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F4F8FE 60%,#EAF1FB 100%); border:1px solid #DCE6F2; box-shadow:inset 0 1px 0 #FFFFFF, 0 10px 24px rgba(16,32,64,.05); }\n.kccm .kcv-stat::after{ content:\"\"; position:absolute; right:-30px; top:-30px; width:90px; height:90px; border-radius:50%; background:radial-gradient(circle, rgba(46,107,216,.12), transparent 70%); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-stat-n{ margin:0 0 6px; font-size:30px; line-height:1; font-weight:900; letter-spacing:-.03em; color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-stat-n sup{ font-size:.5em; vertical-align:top; position:relative; top:.1em; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-stat-t{ margin:0; font-size:14px; line-height:1.45; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-rows{ display:flex; flex-direction:column; }\n.kccm .kcv-row{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:260px minmax(0,1fr); gap:44px; padding:30px 0; border-top:1px solid #E3EAF4; }\n.kccm .kcv-row:first-child{ border-top:0; padding-top:6px; }\n.kccm .kcv-row-h{ position:sticky; top:110px; align-self:start; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-row-k{ margin:0 0 8px; font-size:11.5px; font-weight:700; letter-spacing:.14em; text-transform:uppercase; color:#E09019; }\n.kccm .kcv-row-h h3{ margin:0; font-size:21px; line-height:1.3; }\n.kccm .kcv-row-b .kcv-p:last-child{ margin-bottom:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-row-b .kcv-conds{ margin-top:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-duel{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:minmax(0,1fr) 54px minmax(0,1fr); align-items:stretch; margin:6px 0 26px; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt{ position:relative; border-radius:24px; padding:30px 30px 26px; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; background:#FFFFFF; box-shadow:0 14px 34px rgba(16,32,64,.06); }\n.kccm .kcv-opt-a{ background:linear-gradient(160deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F2F7FF 100%); }\n.kccm .kcv-opt-b{ background:linear-gradient(160deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#FFF7EA 100%); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-opt-k{ margin:0 0 6px; font-size:11.5px; font-weight:700; letter-spacing:.14em; text-transform:uppercase; color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt-b .kcv-opt-k{ color:#B07314; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-opt-t{ margin:0 0 12px; font-size:23px; line-height:1.2; font-weight:700; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-opt-n{ display:inline-block; margin:0 0 18px; padding:7px 13px; border-radius:999px; font-size:13.5px; font-weight:700; background:#E8F0FD; color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt-b .kcv-opt-n{ background:#FCEFD8; color:#8A5A0E; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt ul{ margin:0; padding:0; list-style:none; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt li{ position:relative; margin:0 0 10px; padding-left:26px; font-size:15.5px; line-height:1.6; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt li::before{ content:\"\"; position:absolute; left:0; top:7px; width:14px; height:14px; border-radius:50%; background:linear-gradient(135deg,#1F4FA8,#2E6BD8); box-shadow:0 0 0 3px #E8F0FD; }\n.kccm .kcv-opt-b li::before{ background:linear-gradient(135deg,#E09019,#F0B04A); box-shadow:0 0 0 3px #FCEFD8; }\n.kccm .kcv-or{ align-self:center; justify-self:center; width:46px; height:46px; border-radius:50%; display:grid; place-items:center; font-size:14px; font-weight:700; font-style:italic; color:#5a6275; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; box-shadow:0 8px 18px rgba(16,32,64,.08); position:relative; z-index:1; margin:0 -8px; }\n.kccm .kcv-callout{ display:flex; gap:16px; align-items:flex-start; margin:8px 0 30px; padding:22px 26px; border-radius:20px; background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFF9EF 0%,#FFFFFF 100%); border:1px solid #F3E2C4; }\n.kccm .kcv-callout p{ margin:0; font-size:16px; line-height:1.7; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-callout-i{ flex:none; width:40px; height:40px; border-radius:12px; display:grid; place-items:center; color:#E09019; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #F3E2C4; }\n.kccm .kcv-phases{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; gap:18px; margin:4px 0 18px; }\n.kccm .kcv-phase,.kccm .kcv-wide{ border-radius:24px; padding:28px 30px 24px; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; box-shadow:0 14px 34px rgba(16,32,64,.06); }\n.kccm .kcv-phase h3,.kccm .kcv-wide h3{ margin:0 0 12px; font-size:22px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-phase-k{ margin:0 0 8px; font-size:11.5px; font-weight:700; letter-spacing:.12em; text-transform:uppercase; color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv-phase .kcv-p,.kccm .kcv-wide .kcv-p{ font-size:16px; }\n.kccm .kcv-quote{ margin:4px 0 16px; padding:16px 20px; border-radius:16px; background:linear-gradient(135deg,#F2F7FF,#FFFFFF); border-left:3px solid #2E6BD8; }\n.kccm .kcv-quote p{ margin:0 0 6px; font-size:16.5px; line-height:1.55; font-style:italic; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv-quote cite{ font-style:normal; font-size:13.5px; }\n.kccm .kcv-wide{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:300px minmax(0,1fr); gap:36px; align-items:start; background:linear-gradient(160deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F4F8FE 100%); }\n.kccm .kcv-mini-stats{ display:grid; gap:10px; margin-top:16px; }\n.kccm .kcv-mini-stats > div{ padding:14px 16px; border-radius:16px; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; }\n.kccm .kcv-mini-stats .kcv-stat-n{ font-size:24px; margin-bottom:4px; }\n.kccm .kcv-hs{ list-style:none; margin:10px 0 30px; padding:0; display:grid; grid-template-columns:repeat(6,minmax(0,1fr)); gap:14px; position:relative; }\n.kccm .kcv-hs::before{ content:\"\"; position:absolute; left:8%; right:8%; top:13px; height:2px; background:linear-gradient(90deg,#2E6BD8,#9FC0E8 60%,#E09019); }\n.kccm .kcv-hs li{ position:relative; padding:44px 16px 18px; border-radius:18px; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; box-shadow:0 10px 24px rgba(16,32,64,.05); text-align:left; }\n.kccm .kcv-hs-dot{ position:absolute; left:16px; top:4px; width:20px; height:20px; border-radius:50%; background:#FFFFFF; border:4px solid #1F4FA8; box-shadow:0 0 0 4px #EEF3FA; }\n.kccm .kcv-hs li:last-child .kcv-hs-dot{ border-color:#E09019; }\n.kccm .kcv-hs .kcv-tl-t{ margin:0 0 6px; font-size:15.5px; font-weight:700; line-height:1.3; }\n.kccm .kcv-hs li p{ margin:0; font-size:14px; line-height:1.55; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-split{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:minmax(0,1fr) 360px; gap:22px; align-items:start; margin-bottom:24px; }\n.kccm .kcv-split .kcv-check{ grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; margin:0; }\n.kccm .kcv-split .kcv-check li{ padding:16px 16px; font-size:15px; border-radius:16px; box-shadow:0 6px 16px rgba(16,32,64,.04); }\n.kccm .kcv-act{ border-radius:24px; padding:26px 24px 22px; background:radial-gradient(420px 220px at 100% 0%, rgba(46,107,216,.14), transparent 60%), linear-gradient(160deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#EEF4FD 100%); border:1px solid #D4E2F4; box-shadow:0 18px 40px rgba(16,32,64,.08); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-act-k{ margin:0 0 6px; font-size:11.5px; font-weight:700; letter-spacing:.14em; text-transform:uppercase; color:#E09019; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-act-t{ margin:0 0 10px; font-size:21px; line-height:1.25; font-weight:700; color:#1D1D1F; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-act-p{ margin:0 0 18px; font-size:15px; line-height:1.6; color:#3A4A5E; }\n.kccm .kcv-act-b{ display:flex; flex-direction:column; gap:16px; align-items:stretch; padding:6px; }\n.kccm .kcv-act-b .kcv-fb{ width:100%; }\n.kccm .kcv-faqgrid{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:320px minmax(0,1fr); gap:28px; align-items:start; }\n.kccm .kcv-act-sticky{ position:sticky; top:110px; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details{ padding:0; border-radius:18px; overflow:hidden; margin:0 0 10px; box-shadow:0 4px 12px rgba(16,32,64,.03); }\n.kccm .kcv-faq summary{ padding:19px 22px; font-size:16.5px; align-items:center; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq summary::after{ width:30px; height:30px; flex:none; border-radius:50%; display:grid; place-items:center; background:#F2F6FC; font-size:20px; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details[open]{ border-color:#BFD4EE; background:linear-gradient(160deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F6F9FE 100%); box-shadow:0 14px 30px rgba(16,32,64,.07); }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details[open] summary{ color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq details[open] summary::after{ background:#1F4FA8; color:#FFFFFF; }\n.kccm .kcv-faq .a{ margin:0; padding:0 22px 16px; }\n.kccm .kcv-arts{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:repeat(6,minmax(0,1fr)); gap:12px; margin:6px 0 16px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-art,.kccm .kcv .kcv-pg{ position:relative; display:flex; flex-direction:column; gap:4px; padding:18px 18px 16px; border-radius:18px; background:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #DCE6F2; text-decoration:none !important; color:#1D1D1F; box-shadow:0 6px 16px rgba(16,32,64,.04); transition:transform .25s ease, box-shadow .25s ease, border-color .25s ease; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-art:hover,.kccm .kcv .kcv-pg:hover{ transform:translateY(-2px); border-color:#9FC0E8; box-shadow:0 14px 28px rgba(16,32,64,.09); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-art-n{ font-size:19px; font-weight:900; letter-spacing:-.02em; color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-art-t,.kccm .kcv .kcv-pg-s{ font-size:13.5px; line-height:1.4; color:#5a6275; padding-right:20px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-art-a{ position:absolute; right:14px; top:16px; color:#9FB3CC; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-art:hover .kcv-art-a,.kccm .kcv .kcv-pg:hover .kcv-art-a{ color:#1F4FA8; }\n.kccm .kcv h3.kcv-center{ margin:34px 0 16px; }\n.kccm .kcv-pgs{ display:grid; grid-template-columns:repeat(5,minmax(0,1fr)); gap:12px; margin-bottom:14px; }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-pg{ background:linear-gradient(160deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F4F8FE 100%); }\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-pg-t{ font-size:16px; font-weight:700; padding-right:20px; }\n@media (max-width:1100px){.kccm .kcv-stats{ grid-template-columns:repeat(2,minmax(0,1fr)); }.kccm .kcv-hs{ grid-template-columns:repeat(3,minmax(0,1fr)); row-gap:18px; }.kccm .kcv-hs::before{ display:none; }.kccm .kcv-arts,.kccm .kcv-pgs{ grid-template-columns:repeat(3,minmax(0,1fr)); }.kccm .kcv-split{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }.kccm .kcv-faqgrid{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }.kccm .kcv-act-sticky{ position:static; }.kccm .kcv-wide{ grid-template-columns:1fr; gap:10px; }}\n@media (max-width:900px){.kccm .kcv-row{ grid-template-columns:1fr; gap:12px; padding:24px 0; }.kccm .kcv-row-h{ position:static; }.kccm .kcv-duel{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }.kccm .kcv-or{ margin:-8px auto; }.kccm .kcv-phases{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }.kccm .kcv-hs{ grid-template-columns:1fr; gap:10px; }.kccm .kcv-split .kcv-check{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }.kccm .kcv-arts,.kccm .kcv-pgs{ grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; }.kccm .kcv-callout{ padding:18px; }.kccm .kcv-opt,.kccm .kcv-phase,.kccm .kcv-wide{ padding:22px 20px; }}\n@media (max-width:480px){.kccm .kcv-stats{ grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr; gap:10px; }.kccm .kcv .kcv-stat-n{ font-size:24px; }.kccm .kcv-stat{ padding:16px 14px; }.kccm .kcv-arts,.kccm .kcv-pgs{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }}\n.kccm .kcv-news-band{ margin:72px 0 -10px; padding:84px 20px 26px; text-align:center; background:linear-gradient(180deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#F7F9FC 100%); }\n.kccm .kcv-news-band h2{ margin:0; }\n@media (max-width:1100px){.kccm .kcv-pro{ grid-template-columns:340px minmax(0,1fr); gap:36px; }.kccm .kcv-slide{ padding:42px 40px; }}\n@media (max-width:900px){.kccm .kcv-media img{ object-position:80% 60%; }.kccm .kcv-tabs{ padding:70px 0 40px; }.kccm .kcv h2{ font-size:29px; }.kccm .kcv-bar{ justify-content:flex-start; margin:22px -20px 18px; padding:0 20px; }.kccm .kcv-slide{ padding:30px 22px; border-radius:22px; }.kccm .kcv-pro{ grid-template-columns:1fr; gap:28px; }.kccm .kcv-pro-photo{ max-width:340px; width:100%; margin:0 auto; }.kccm .kcv-pro-body > h2{ font-size:28px; }.kccm .kcv-profile{ grid-template-columns:96px minmax(0,1fr); gap:18px; }.kccm .kcv-photo img{ width:96px; }.kccm .kcv-profile h2{ font-size:24px; }.kccm .kcv-cards,.kccm .kcv-conds,.kccm .kcv-vs,.kccm .kcv-check,.kccm .kcv-src{ grid-template-columns:1fr; }}\n@media (max-width:480px){.kccm .kcv-btns .kcv-fb{ width:100%; }.kccm .kcv h1{ font-size:34px; }.kccm .kcv .kcv-sub{ font-size:16.5px; }.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-t{ font-size:14px; padding:11px 15px !important; }.kccm .kcv .kcv-p{ font-size:16px; }}\n@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){.kccm .kcv .kcv-btn,.kccm .kcv .kcv-orb,.kccm .kcv .kcv-chip-t{ transition:none; }}\n.kccm .kcv .kcv-faqgrid > *{min-width:0}\n.kccm{width:100%}\n<\/style>\n<div class=\"kccm\"><div class=\"kcv\">\n<section class=\"kcv-tabs\" id=\"kcv-cabinet\" aria-label=\"Aviation law lawyer in Paris\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-in\">\n    <div class=\"kcv-tabs-head\">\n      <p class=\"kk\">Kohen Avocats, Paris 17<\/p>\n      <h2>Aviation law: <em>a different liability regime for each party<\/em><\/h2>\n    <\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcv-bar\"><div class=\"kcv-chips\" role=\"tablist\" aria-label=\"Case sections\"><button class=\"kcv-chip-t on\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-avocat\" aria-controls=\"kcv-avocat\" aria-selected=\"true\" tabindex=\"0\">The lawyer<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p1\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p1\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Key levers<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p2\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p2\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Your documents<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p3\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p3\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The method<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p4\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p4\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The timetable<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p5\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p5\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The checks<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-synthese\" aria-controls=\"kcv-synthese\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Summary<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-faq\" aria-controls=\"kcv-faq\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Questions<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-textes\" aria-controls=\"kcv-textes\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Legal texts<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcv-track\"><div class=\"kcv-slide kcv-on\" id=\"kcv-avocat\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-avocat\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<div class=\"kcv-pro\">\n  <figure class=\"kcv-pro-photo\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" src=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/kohen-footer\/portrait-reda-20260920-lignes-orange.jpg\" alt=\"Reda Kohen, lawyer at the Paris Bar\" width=\"1122\" height=\"1402\" loading=\"eager\" decoding=\"async\">\n    <figcaption class=\"kcv-pro-cap kcv-glass\"><span class=\"kcv-pro-capn\">Reda Kohen<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pro-capr\">Lawyer at the Paris Bar<\/span><\/figcaption>\n  <\/figure>\n  <div class=\"kcv-pro-body\">\n    <p class=\"kk\">Passengers, operators, owners \u00b7 Paris 17th arrondissement<\/p>\n    <h2>What an <em>aviation law lawyer<\/em> in Paris does<\/h2>\n    <ul class=\"kcv-pro-tags\"><li>Paris Bar<\/li><li>Aviation law<\/li><li>Firm in the 17th arrondissement of Paris<\/li><\/ul>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">Lawyer at the Paris Bar: passenger claims, carriage of baggage and freight, administrative penalties against operators, ownership, leasing and seizure of aircraft.<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">Aviation law is not a single body of rules. A carrier holding an operating licence is liable to passengers and for their baggage under Regulation (EC) No 2027\/97 as amended and the Montreal Convention of 1999 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023654523\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023654523\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6421-3 of the French Transport Code<\/a>). The operator of an aircraft is liable as of right for damage caused to persons and property on the surface (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-2<\/a>). The owner, for its part, derives title from registration in the French aircraft register (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078466\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078466\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6121-1<\/a>). The firm therefore starts by identifying each party, then applies the regime that concerns them, with its caps and time limits.<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">Send the documents you hold, such as your ticket, exchanges with the airline, a contract or an extract from the register: the firm sorts them and tells you what is missing, on <a href=\"tel:+33646605822\">06 46 60 58 22<\/a>.<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-pro-meta\"><a href=\"https:\/\/consultation.avocat.fr\/avocat-paris\/reda-kohen-54670.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Official profile in the directory of French lawyers (CNB)<\/a><span>Firm at 11 rue Margueritte, 75017 Paris<\/span><\/p>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-cards\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-card\"><h3>Passenger: the right legal basis<\/h3><p>Fixed compensation under the European regulation, compensation for proven loss under the Montreal Convention, or an action against the travel agency: each route has its own conditions and time limit (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 35 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>).<\/p><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-card\"><h3>Operator: liability without fault<\/h3><p>Towards third parties on the ground, the operator's liability gives way only to fault on the part of the victim (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-2<\/a>); towards the authorities, fines are challenged before the administrative court.<\/p><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-card\"><h3>Owner: the register is conclusive<\/h3><p>The transfer of an aircraft is recorded in writing and takes effect against third parties only once it is entered in the register (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078463\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078463\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6121-2<\/a>).<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p1\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p1\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Key levers<\/p>\n<h2>Claim, operate, <em>hold, seize<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">Four rules most often decide the outcome of an aviation law case, whether it pits a passenger against an airline or two businesses against each other.<\/p>\n<ol class=\"kcv-conds\">\n  <li><strong>The European regulation and the Montreal Convention can be combined<\/strong>: the Court of Cassation, following the Court of Justice, recalls that \"compensation granted to air passengers on the basis of Article 12 of Regulation No 261\/2004 is intended to supplement the measures provided for by that regulation\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca9b6d7dee8290d47e88f1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 1re civ., 14 February 2018, No. 16-20.354<\/a>), so that a passenger may claim, in addition to the fixed sum, compensation for hotel costs incurred on arrival. An action for payment of the fixed compensation is not subject to the two-year period of the Convention (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 35 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>): \"the action for payment of the fixed compensation was subject to the ordinary five-year limitation period provided for in Article 2224 of the Civil Code\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca97e63af51f8cc479884a\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 1re civ., 14 March 2018, No. 17-15.378<\/a>).<\/li>\n  <li><strong>Baggage claims must be made in writing and within a short time<\/strong>: in the case of damage, the written complaint must be made immediately on discovering it and sent at the latest seven days after receipt of checked baggage, or fourteen days for cargo; in the case of delay, it must be made within twenty-one days of the baggage being placed at the passenger's disposal. After those periods, any action against the carrier is inadmissible, save in the case of fraud on its part (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 31 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). The Paris judicial court (tribunal judiciaire) applied this to a passenger who had received his or her baggage and made a claim only more than twenty-one days after receiving it, holding that \"the claim for compensation based on the loss of the baggage is inadmissible\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/67d1dfa833b2bc65ea734588\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">TJ Paris, 11 March 2025, No. 22\/05748<\/a>), a ruling unfavourable to the passenger.<\/li>\n  <li><strong>The operator is liable to third parties without any fault having to be proved<\/strong>: harm that an aircraft in flight, or anything falling from it, inflicts on persons or property on the ground engages the operator's liability as of right (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-2<\/a>). Where an aircraft is leased, the owner and the operator are jointly and severally liable, unless the lease has been entered in the register, in which case the owner is liable only for proven fault on its part (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078391\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078391\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-4<\/a>).<\/li>\n  <li><strong>Registration protects the owner, including against insolvency proceedings<\/strong>: the Court of Cassation has held that \"as ownership of the aircraft is, by virtue of its registration, enforceable against everyone, it is necessarily enforceable against the insolvency proceedings, and the owner is not subject to the procedure for reclaiming property provided for in Article L. 624-9 of the Commercial Code (Code de commerce)\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/6603c4ec01e3cc0008b6f4e7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 27 March 2024, No. 22-14.028<\/a>). For the creditor, the route of protective attachment goes through a specific judge, because \"the enforcement judge exclusively authorises protective attachments of aircraft of foreign nationality or whose owner is not domiciled in France\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/63db630304a8de05deba66eb\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 2e civ., 2 February 2023, No. 21-17.459<\/a>), subject to the optional jurisdiction held concurrently by the president of the commercial court, under the conditions laid down by law.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"kcv-callout\"><span class=\"kcv-callout-i\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M9.6 6C6.5 7.4 4.5 10 4.5 13.4V18h6v-6H7.6c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L9.6 6zm9 0c-3.1 1.4-5.1 4-5.1 7.4V18h6v-6h-2.9c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L18.6 6z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><p>Buying a ticket on its own from an agency does not trigger the liability as of right provided for by the Tourism Code (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000036242739\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000036242739\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 211-17-3 of the Tourism Code<\/a>): according to the Court of Cassation, \"the liability of a travel agency that has supplied only air transport tickets arises only where fault is proved\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/683fe31e669ab945909609c6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 1re civ., 4 June 2025, No. 23-20.062<\/a>). It set aside the judgment that had ordered the agency to pay without examining whether the agency, which maintained that it had sold only tickets, was liable only for proven fault, and remitted the case. What was sold, a package or a ticket, must therefore be established before the defendant is chosen.<\/p><\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p2\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p2\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Your documents<\/p>\n<h2>What you need to gather to <em>establish liability<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The judge decides on the documents: some claims require a written complaint made in time, and ownership of an aircraft is read from the aircraft register.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-duel\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-opt kcv-opt-a\"><p class=\"kcv-opt-k\">Position A<\/p><p class=\"kcv-opt-t\">Passenger or shipper<\/p><ul><li>Ticket, boarding pass, baggage tag or air waybill<\/li><li>Property irregularity report drawn up at the airport and dated written complaint<\/li><li>Exchanges with the airline, the agency or the freight forwarder, including any refusal<\/li><li>Invoices, photographs and other evidence of the contents, the value and the loss claimed<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-or\" aria-hidden=\"true\">or<\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-opt kcv-opt-b\"><p class=\"kcv-opt-k\">Position B<\/p><p class=\"kcv-opt-t\">Aircraft operator or owner<\/p><ul><li>Extract from the French aircraft register and any current entries<\/li><li>Lease, finance lease, maintenance or charter contract<\/li><li>Breach reports, notification of the alleged breaches and penalty decision<\/li><li>Insurance certificates and claim notifications<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-callout\"><span class=\"kcv-callout-i\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M9.6 6C6.5 7.4 4.5 10 4.5 13.4V18h6v-6H7.6c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L9.6 6zm9 0c-3.1 1.4-5.1 4-5.1 7.4V18h6v-6h-2.9c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L18.6 6z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><p>Common mistakes: complaining too late about baggage, more than seven days after receipt in the case of damage or more than twenty-one days after it was placed at the passenger's disposal in the case of delay; buying or leasing an aircraft without having the deed entered in the register; challenging an administrative fine without reviewing the procedure followed by the authority.<\/p><\/div>\n<p class=\"kcv-p\">Parties frequently involved in the case:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"kcv-pro-tags\"><li>French aircraft register<\/li><li>Judicial officer<\/li><li>Aviation expert<\/li><li>The operator's insurer<\/li><\/ul><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p3\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p3\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The method<\/p>\n<h2>How the firm <em>supports you<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The order does not vary: characterise the relationship, identify the applicable regime, then act within the time limit that regime imposes.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-rows\">\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 1<\/p><h3>Legal classification<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Carriage for reward or on a gratuitous basis, international or domestic, contracting or actual carrier, operator or mere owner: each characterisation changes the applicable text.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 2<\/p><h3>Time limits and evidence<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Calculation of the time limits for complaints and limitation periods, gathering of documents, consultation of the aircraft register and its entries.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 3<\/p><h3>Amicable approach<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Reasoned claim, formal notice, discussions with the insurer or the authority, and a search for a quantified settlement based on the applicable caps.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 4<\/p><h3>Bringing or defending a claim<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Referral to the competent civil or administrative court, application for protective attachment, full-jurisdiction challenge to a penalty.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-callout\"><span class=\"kcv-callout-i\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M9.6 6C6.5 7.4 4.5 10 4.5 13.4V18h6v-6H7.6c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L9.6 6zm9 0c-3.1 1.4-5.1 4-5.1 7.4V18h6v-6h-2.9c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L18.6 6z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><p>Benchmarks: written complaint as soon as damage to checked baggage is discovered and at the latest seven days after receipt, twenty-one days after it was placed at the passenger's disposal in the case of delay (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 31 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>); two years for an action based on the Montreal Convention (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 35 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>); five years for the fixed compensation under the European regulation (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 2224 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p4\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p4\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The timetable<\/p>\n<h2>The stages of an <em>aviation law case<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">From the incident to enforcement, with indicative durations depending on the nature of the dispute.<\/p>\n<ol class=\"kcv-hs\"><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Report<\/p><p><strong>The same day.<\/strong> Report at the airport, photographs, and keeping the ticket and tags.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Complaint<\/p><p><strong>Seven, fourteen or twenty-one days.<\/strong> Written complaint to the carrier: damage to baggage within seven days of receipt, to cargo within fourteen days, delay within twenty-one days of the goods being placed at the passenger's disposal, on pain of inadmissibility save in the case of fraud (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 31 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>).<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Claim<\/p><p><strong>Weeks 1-4.<\/strong> A quantified and reasoned claim, addressed to the right debtor: carrier, agency, operator or insurer.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Formal notice<\/p><p>The last step before going to court. For a sum of money owed, it starts interest running at the statutory rate (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032010133\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032010133\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1231-6 of the Civil Code<\/a>); compensation set by the court bears interest in principle from the date of judgment (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032010135\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032010135\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1231-7 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Referral to the judge<\/p><p><strong>Before the time limit expires.<\/strong> Two years under the Montreal Convention, five years for the fixed compensation, and specific time limits for challenges to a penalty.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Enforcement<\/p><p><strong>After the decision.<\/strong> Payment, attachment if needed, and entry in the aircraft register of judgments relating to ownership.<\/p><\/li><\/ol><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p5\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p5\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The checks<\/p>\n<h2>What the firm checks <em>before acting<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">No claim, no application and no challenge without first confirming these points.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-split\">\n  <ul class=\"kcv-check\"><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Nature of the carriage: for reward or gratuitous, international or domestic, with or without an operating licence.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Identity of the debtor: contracting carrier, actual carrier, agency, freight forwarder, operator or owner.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Time limits for complaints and limitation periods, and the starting point of each.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Caps in force on the date of carriage, special declaration of interest for baggage and cargo, and qualified fault, which removes the caps for delay affecting passengers and baggage but not for delay affecting cargo.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Entries in the aircraft register: ownership, lease, mortgage.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Regularity of the penalty procedure: report, notification of the alleged breaches, summons, composition of the authority.<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n  <aside class=\"kcv-act\">\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-k\">Case documents<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-t\">Send what you have, even if incomplete<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-p\">Submit your documents through the confidential form at the top of the page: the firm will prioritise and complete the file with you.<\/p>\n    <div class=\"kcv-act-b\"><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-mail\" href=\"#kcf-1form\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"2.5\" y=\"4.5\" width=\"19\" height=\"15\" rx=\"2.5\"\/><path d=\"m3.5 6.5 8.5 6.5 8.5-6.5\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Send your documents<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">confidential form<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-tel\" href=\"tel:+33646605822\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"currentColor\" stroke=\"none\" stroke-width=\"0\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 16.9v3a2 2 0 0 1-2.2 2 19.8 19.8 0 0 1-8.6-3.1 19.5 19.5 0 0 1-6-6A19.8 19.8 0 0 1 2.1 4.2 2 2 0 0 1 4.1 2h3a2 2 0 0 1 2 1.7c.1.9.4 1.8.7 2.7a2 2 0 0 1-.5 2.1L8 9.8a16 16 0 0 0 6 6l1.3-1.3a2 2 0 0 1 2.1-.4c.9.3 1.8.6 2.7.7a2 2 0 0 1 1.7 2z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Call the firm<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">06&nbsp;46&nbsp;60&nbsp;58&nbsp;22<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n  <\/aside>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-synthese\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-synthese\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Summary<\/p>\n<h2>Situation, risk, <em>act, decision<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The most common trade-offs for a passenger, a shipper, an aircraft operator or an aircraft owner.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-rows\">\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Damaged baggage discovered on arrival<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Main risk:<\/strong> Action inadmissible for want of a timely complaint.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Preferred step:<\/strong> Written complaint as soon as the damage is discovered, and at the latest seven days after receipt.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Recommended decision:<\/strong> Complain before even quantifying the loss.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Hotel costs after a delayed flight<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Main risk:<\/strong> Claim rejected if only the European fixed compensation is relied on.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Preferred step:<\/strong> Claim based on Article 19 of the Montreal Convention.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Recommended decision:<\/strong> Combine the fixed compensation with compensation for proven loss.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Ticket bought on its own from an agency<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Main risk:<\/strong> Agency not liable without proven fault.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Preferred step:<\/strong> Claim directed against the carrier.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Recommended decision:<\/strong> Look for fault on the agency's own part before suing it.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Cargo lost in air freight<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Main risk:<\/strong> Compensation capped per kilogram.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Preferred step:<\/strong> Special declaration of interest on handover.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Recommended decision:<\/strong> Insure the real value before dispatch.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Fine for take-off outside permitted hours<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Main risk:<\/strong> Penalty upheld on appeal.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Preferred step:<\/strong> Reasoned full-jurisdiction challenge.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Recommended decision:<\/strong> Review the procedure and the evidence of timing.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Aircraft of a foreign debtor landed in France<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Main risk:<\/strong> Aircraft leaves before any measure is taken.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Preferred step:<\/strong> Application to the enforcement judge.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Recommended decision:<\/strong> Check the nature of the claim before attaching.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-faq\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-faq\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Frequently asked questions<\/p>\n<h2>Your questions: <em>aviation law, from passenger to owner<\/em><\/h2>\n<div class=\"kcv-faqgrid\">\n  <aside class=\"kcv-act kcv-act-sticky\">\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-k\">13 questions<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-t\">A situation not listed here?<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-p\">Every case has its own features. The firm reads your documents before answering you.<\/p>\n    <div class=\"kcv-act-b\"><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-tel\" href=\"tel:+33646605822\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"currentColor\" stroke=\"none\" stroke-width=\"0\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 16.9v3a2 2 0 0 1-2.2 2 19.8 19.8 0 0 1-8.6-3.1 19.5 19.5 0 0 1-6-6A19.8 19.8 0 0 1 2.1 4.2 2 2 0 0 1 4.1 2h3a2 2 0 0 1 2 1.7c.1.9.4 1.8.7 2.7a2 2 0 0 1-.5 2.1L8 9.8a16 16 0 0 0 6 6l1.3-1.3a2 2 0 0 1 2.1-.4c.9.3 1.8.6 2.7.7a2 2 0 0 1 1.7 2z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Call the firm<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">06&nbsp;46&nbsp;60&nbsp;58&nbsp;22<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-mail\" href=\"#kcf-1form\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"2.5\" y=\"4.5\" width=\"19\" height=\"15\" rx=\"2.5\"\/><path d=\"m3.5 6.5 8.5 6.5 8.5-6.5\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Send your documents<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">confidential form<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n  <\/aside>\n  <div class=\"kcv-faq\"><details><summary>What does aviation law cover for an individual or a business?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Aviation law brings together rules of different origins that apply to any aircraft able to rise or travel through the air (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000051561624\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000051561624\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6100-1<\/a>). For the passenger, it mainly means the European regulation on cancelled or delayed flights and the Montreal Convention, to which the Transport Code refers for the liability of a carrier holding an operating licence (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023654523\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023654523\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6421-3<\/a>).<\/p><p>For the operator, aviation law provides for liability as of right towards third parties on the ground (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-2<\/a>) and a regime of administrative penalties, notably for airport nuisance (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077977\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077977\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6361-12<\/a>). For the owner, it sets the rules on registration, transfer, mortgage and seizure of the aircraft.<\/p><p>This page covers the subject as a whole and the rules specific to operators and owners. The pages on cancelled or delayed flights and on plane crashes detail the remedies available to passengers and victims.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can the European regulation and the Montreal Convention be relied on together?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Yes. The European regulation provides for fixed compensation and standardised assistance measures, whereas the Montreal Convention makes the carrier liable for loss caused by delay, unless it proves that it, its servants and agents took all measures that could reasonably be required to avoid the damage, or that it was impossible for them to do so (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 19 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). The Court of Cassation infers from this that \"compensation granted to air passengers on the basis of Article 12 of Regulation No 261\/2004 is intended to supplement the measures provided for by that regulation\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca9b6d7dee8290d47e88f1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 1re civ., 14 February 2018, No. 16-20.354<\/a>).<\/p><p>In that case, a passenger who had reached her destination late claimed the price of a hotel room. The local judge (juge de proximit\u00e9) had dismissed her claim on the ground that the regulation covers accommodation only if the flight is delayed until the following day. The Court of Cassation overturned that reasoning, since the claim was based on the Convention and not on the right to assistance provided for by the regulation.<\/p><p>Loss compensated under the Convention must be proved and remains capped, save in the case of qualified fault by the carrier (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 22 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). For passenger delay, the cap of 4,150 special drawing rights fixed in 1999 has been revised under the mechanism provided for by the Convention: it stands at 6,303 special drawing rights for carriage performed since 28 December 2024 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.icao.int\/news\/international-air-travel-liability-limits-set-increase-enhancing-customer-compensation-0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">ICAO press release of 18 October 2024<\/a>). Each claim is therefore divided between what falls under the fixed compensation and what falls under individualised compensation.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Two years or five years: which time limit applies to an action against the air carrier?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>It depends on the legal basis. An action for liability based on the Montreal Convention must be brought, on pain of forfeiture, within two years running from the date of arrival, the date on which the aircraft ought to have arrived, or the date on which the carriage stopped (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 35 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). That period applies to baggage, cargo, delay and personal injury.<\/p><p>The fixed compensation under the European regulation is subject to a different time limit. The Court of Cassation has held that \"the action for payment of the fixed compensation was subject to the ordinary five-year limitation period provided for in Article 2224 of the Civil Code\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca97e63af51f8cc479884a\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 1re civ., 14 March 2018, No. 17-15.378<\/a>), that is, five years from the day on which the passenger knew or ought to have known the facts (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 2224 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>The same disruption can therefore give rise to two actions that do not expire on the same date. The firm calculates each from the travel documents and, when the two-year time limit approaches, brings the action without waiting for the outcome of amicable discussions.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Lost, damaged or delayed baggage: what written complaints should be made, and when?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The carrier is liable for the loss, damage or destruction of checked baggage where the event took place on board or while the baggage was in its charge, unless the damage results from the nature or inherent defect of the baggage; if the baggage has not arrived twenty-one days after the date on which it ought to have arrived, or if the airline admits its loss, the passenger may exercise their rights as for a loss (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 17 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). For damage and delay, a written complaint is required: in the case of damage, as soon as it is discovered and at the latest seven days after receipt of the baggage; in the case of delay, within twenty-one days of the baggage being placed at the passenger's disposal. Failing that, any action is inadmissible, save in the case of fraud by the carrier (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 31 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>).<\/p><p>The time limit is applied strictly. In a decision given in Paris, the passenger had received his or her baggage and made a claim only more than twenty-one days after receiving it; the court held that \"the claim for compensation based on the loss of the baggage is inadmissible\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/67d1dfa833b2bc65ea734588\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">TJ Paris, 11 March 2025, No. 22\/05748<\/a>). A ruling unfavourable to the passenger, who was also ordered to pay a sum towards the airline's legal costs.<\/p><p>Compensation remains capped. For a passenger deprived of three suitcases, the Paris Court of Appeal recalled that \"that sum is a compensation ceiling which covers both material and non-material damage and from which the passenger concerned does not benefit as of right and as a fixed amount, even where baggage is lost\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/65e17e565ae9c20008433c80\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CA Paris, 29 February 2024, No. 21\/03598<\/a>). That cap, which is 1,519 special drawing rights per passenger for carriage performed since 28 December 2024 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.icao.int\/news\/international-air-travel-liability-limits-set-increase-enhancing-customer-compensation-0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">ICAO press release of 18 October 2024<\/a>), can be raised by a special declaration of interest at check-in (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 22 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). In every case, the contents, value and loss must be supported by probative evidence: the court ruled on the basis of the invoices produced and also compensated the non-material loss, within the limit of the cap.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Is a travel agency liable for a cancelled flight or lost baggage?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>It all depends on what it sold. A professional who sells a travel package or a travel service is liable as of right for their performance; it is relieved of liability, in whole or in part, only by proving that the damage is attributable to the traveller, to a third party unconnected with the provision of the travel services included in the contract, or to unavoidable and extraordinary circumstances (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038614158\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038614158\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 211-16 of the Tourism Code<\/a>). That regime does not apply to the sale of an air transport ticket outside a package (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000036242739\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000036242739\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 211-17-3 of the Tourism Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>The Court of Cassation has drawn the conclusion that \"the liability of a travel agency that has supplied only air transport tickets arises only where fault is proved\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/683fe31e669ab945909609c6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 1re civ., 4 June 2025, No. 23-20.062<\/a>). On that point it set aside the judgment that had ordered the agency to pay jointly and severally with the airline without examining whether its liability, since it maintained that it had sold only tickets, required proven fault, and remitted the case to another court. The nature of the sale remains to be established in every case.<\/p><p>The defendant is therefore chosen on the basis of the invoice: package or ticket only. In the second case, the claim is directed first at the carrier, and the agency is joined only if fault on its own part can be established, for example a booking error or a failure to provide information.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Cargo sent by air has been lost: what compensation can the shipper obtain?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The carrier is liable for the loss, damage or destruction of cargo provided the damaging event took place during carriage by air (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 18 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). It is relieved of liability if it proves that the damage results in particular from the inherent defect of the cargo, defective packing performed by someone other than the carrier, an act of war or an act of a public authority. Its liability is also limited per kilogram, unless a special declaration of interest was made when the package was handed over (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 22 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>): 17 special drawing rights in the 1999 text, 26 for carriage performed since 28 December 2024 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.icao.int\/news\/international-air-travel-liability-limits-set-increase-enhancing-customer-compensation-0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">ICAO press release of 18 October 2024<\/a>).<\/p><p>The cap applies broadly. The commercial chamber of the Court of Cassation approved a court of appeal which, the loss being presumed to have occurred during the air phase and the intermediary having the status of air carrier on the strength of the air waybills, had applied the limits of the Convention without the shipper being able to invoke inexcusable fault to set them aside (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/60c993ff7c5a5b81c05bdff8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 16 June 2021, No. 19-24.510<\/a>). The shipper's appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed: a ruling unfavourable to the shipper. The Convention, moreover, provides for the caps to be lifted for qualified fault only in the case of delay affecting passengers and baggage.<\/p><p>For a consignment of value, protection is prepared before departure: declaration of value, ad valorem insurance, then a written complaint in the case of damage, as soon as it is discovered and at the latest fourteen days after receipt, or within twenty-one days of the goods being placed at the consignee's disposal in the case of delay (<a href=\"https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/FR\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:22001A0718(01)\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Article 31 of the Montreal Convention<\/a>). The firm reads the air waybills and the general terms to identify who is the carrier and who is merely a commission agent.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can an operator be penalised for taking off outside the permitted hours?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Yes. The Airport Nuisance Control Authority (Autorit\u00e9 de contr\u00f4le des nuisances a\u00e9roportuaires) imposes an administrative fine on any person who fails to comply with the operating restrictions set at an aerodrome, in particular restrictions on night flights (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077977\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077977\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6361-12<\/a>). For a legal entity, the cap is \u20ac20,000 per breach, raised to \u20ac40,000 in particular for night flights, and the decision may be challenged by way of a full-jurisdiction challenge (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000037290742\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000037290742\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6361-13<\/a>).<\/p><p>A challenge does not always wipe out the penalty. For two take-offs in breach of the Nice curfew, the administrative court had annulled the authority's decisions for breach of the principle of impartiality and then itself imposed two fines; the Paris administrative court of appeal (cour administrative d'appel) dismissed the airline's appeal, holding in particular that a summons received twenty-seven days before the hearing had not deprived it of any safeguard (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/ceta\/id\/CETATEXT000047857310\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/ceta\/id\/CETATEXT000047857310\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">CAA Paris, 17 July 2023, No. 21PA00724<\/a>). A ruling unfavourable to the operator.<\/p><p>The firm examines the evidence of the timings, the regularity of the report, the notification of the alleged breaches and the composition of the panel that ruled, then assesses whether a defect could have influenced the decision or deprived the operator of a safeguard.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can an airline be penalised for disembarking a passenger without a valid document?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Yes. The carrier may board a passenger for international carriage only after proof of the passenger's right to land at the destination and at stopovers (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077806\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077806\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6421-2<\/a>). An air transport company that disembarks in France, from a State that is not party to the Schengen Convention, a foreign national who is not a national of a European Union State or of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway or Switzerland and who lacks the required travel document or visa, is liable to an administrative fine (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049051088\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049051088\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 821-6 of the Code on the Entry and Residence of Foreigners and the Right of Asylum<\/a>). The fine is not imposed, in particular, where the airline establishes that the required documents were presented to it at boarding and showed no manifest irregularity (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000042774564\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000042774564\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 821-8 of the same Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>The court checks whether the irregularity was manifest. For a passenger holding a manifestly forged passport, the Paris administrative court of appeal held that the defects could have been detected by a normally attentive examination by the airline's staff and dismissed the carrier's application (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/ceta\/id\/CETATEXT000049697702\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/ceta\/id\/CETATEXT000049697702\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">CAA Paris, 7 June 2024, No. 23PA02574<\/a>). A ruling unfavourable to the airline, which obtained no reduction of the fine.<\/p><p>The defence turns on the report, on whether the documents were actually presented at boarding, and on how they looked. The firm gathers the documents relating to the check before drafting the written observations or the challenge.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Who owns an aircraft: the person who paid for it or the person entered in the register?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>An aircraft is movable property, but its transfer is recorded in writing and takes effect against third parties only once it is entered in the French aircraft register (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078463\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078463\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6121-2<\/a>). That entry constitutes title of ownership and the register is public (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078466\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078466\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6121-1<\/a>). An aircraft may, moreover, fly only if it is registered, subject to exceptions specific to certain drones (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000045456054\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000045456054\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6111-1<\/a>).<\/p><p>This public registration has powerful effects. Whereas a claim to recover movable property must in principle be brought within three months of publication of the judgment opening the proceedings (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019984033\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019984033\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 624-9 of the Commercial Code<\/a>), the Court of Cassation has held that \"as ownership of the aircraft is, by virtue of its registration, enforceable against everyone, it is necessarily enforceable against the insolvency proceedings, and the owner is not subject to the procedure for reclaiming property provided for in Article L. 624-9 of the Commercial Code\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/6603c4ec01e3cc0008b6f4e7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 27 March 2024, No. 22-14.028<\/a>). The liquidator of the company in liquidation therefore could not raise the time bar against the registered owner.<\/p><p>Registration also serves financing: a registered aircraft may be encumbered with a contractual mortgage (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078457\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078457\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6122-1<\/a>), created in writing on pain of nullity (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078455\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078455\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6122-2<\/a>). The firm checks the register before any acquisition, lease or taking of security.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can a creditor have an aircraft seized by way of protective attachment?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Ordinary law allows it to any person whose claim appears well founded in principle and who shows circumstances threatening recovery of it (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000025026104\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000025026104\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 511-1 of the Code of Civil Enforcement Procedures<\/a>). The enforcement judge authorises protective measures (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000054142606\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000054142606\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 213-6 of the Code of Judicial Organisation<\/a>).<\/p><p>For a foreign aircraft, the Court of Cassation settled the question of jurisdiction after referring to the Council of State: \"the enforcement judge exclusively authorises protective attachments of aircraft of foreign nationality or whose owner is not domiciled in France\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/63db630304a8de05deba66eb\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 2e civ., 2 February 2023, No. 21-17.459<\/a>), subject to the optional jurisdiction held concurrently by the president of the commercial court. The text that designated the local court judge of the place of landing had been declared unlawful.<\/p><p>Aircraft assigned to a State service or to public transport enjoy protection: without prejudice to the special procedures of the Transport Code, they may be seized by way of protective attachment only for sums owed by the owner in respect of their acquisition or of training or maintenance contracts linked to their operation, or for certain taxes (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044874685\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044874685\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6123-1<\/a>). Among those special procedures, the minister responsible for transport, the aerodrome operator and the Airport Nuisance Control Authority may, after formal notice, require protective attachment of the aircraft for unpaid charges or fines (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044874690\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044874690\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6123-2<\/a>). The firm checks the nature of the claim before filing the application.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>If an aircraft is leased, is the owner liable for damage caused to third parties?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>In principle yes, jointly and severally with the operator. The Transport Code provides, however, that if the lease has been entered in the aircraft register, the owner is liable for damage caused to third parties only if they establish fault on its part (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078391\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078391\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-4<\/a>).<\/p><p>Towards persons and property on the surface, the operator remains liable as of right, and only fault by the victim can reduce or remove its liability (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-2<\/a>). Where two aircraft in motion collide, on the other hand, the liability of the pilot and the operator falls under the Civil Code (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078397\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078397\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-1<\/a>).<\/p><p>For an owner who leases out an aircraft, to a flying club, a school or an operator, entering the lease in the register is therefore a simple precaution. The contract, its publication in the register and the insurance cover are prepared together, before the aircraft is handed over.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Does the air carrier's compensation cap apply to the victims' guarantee fund?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>No. Where an air accident has the material character of an offence, the victim may apply to the Victims' Compensation Commission (CIVI), but on the conditions of Article 706-3 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (Code de proc\u00e9dure p\u00e9nale): the damage must result from an injury to the person, the facts must in principle have caused death, permanent incapacity or total personal incapacity to work of at least one month, and the victim must be of French nationality or the facts must have been committed on French territory. Compensation is then full, subject to reduction or refusal in the case of fault by the victim. The Court of Cassation has held that the guarantee fund \"could not benefit from the cap on liability established by the Warsaw Convention in favour of the air carrier\" (our translation) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/6204b8bb8d6797330c5cdff5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 2e civ., 10 February 2022, No. 20-20.814<\/a>).<\/p><p>In that case, the court of appeal had limited compensation to the cap in the Warsaw Convention, which Article L. 6421-4, in the version applicable to the dispute, applied to a carrier without an operating licence. That text now refers to the Montreal Convention for carriers not covered by Article L. 6421-3 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044191603\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044191603\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6421-4<\/a>).<\/p><p>The victim is therefore not confined to the carrier's cap where the route through the commission is open. The firm compares the compensation routes available, against the operator, its insurer or the fund, before choosing the order of steps.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can a drone or an aircraft freely fly over private property?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The right of overflight exists, but it may not be exercised in conditions that would impede the exercise of the owner's rights (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078324\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078324\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6211-3<\/a>). An owner who suffers repeated, low or intrusive overflight therefore has a basis for acting, to be assessed according to the circumstances.<\/p><p>The remote pilot must have undergone training enabling them to control the aircraft's movement safely, with an exception for certain light aircraft used in model aircraft clubs (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000045456061\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000045456061\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6214-2<\/a>). Drones weighing more than twenty-five kilograms or whose design is subject to certification must also be registered (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000045456054\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000045456054\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6111-1<\/a>).<\/p><p>Since a drone is an aircraft within the meaning of the Transport Code (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000051561624\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000051561624\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6100-1<\/a>), its operator is liable as of right for damage caused to persons and property on the surface (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 6131-2<\/a>). The firm examines the position of the overflown owner as well as that of the remote pilot concerned.<\/p><\/div><\/details><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-textes\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-textes\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Sources and related pages<\/p>\n<h2>Official texts and <em>related pages<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The sources for this page, checked as at 1 November 2026, and the firm's related practice areas.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-arts\"><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023654523\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023654523\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Transport Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 6421-3, carrier liability<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078395\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Transport Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 6131-2, damage on the surface<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078391\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078391\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Transport Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 6131-4, aircraft lease<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078466\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023078466\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Transport Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 6121-1, aircraft register<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044874685\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044874685\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Transport Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 6123-1, protective attachment<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077977\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000023077977\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Transport Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 6361-12, airport nuisance fines<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000036242739\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000036242739\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Tourism Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article L. 211-17-3, ticket outside a package<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Civil Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">Article 2224, five-year limitation period<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n<h3 class=\"kcv-center\">Further reading<\/h3>\n<div class=\"kcv-pgs\"><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/flight-delay-lawyer-paris\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Cancelled or delayed flight<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm's practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/air-accident-lawyer-paris\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Plane crash<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm's practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/business-law-attorneys-paris-75017\/insurance-lawyer\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Insurance<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm's practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/business-law-attorneys-paris-75017\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Business law in Paris<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">The firm's business law team<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/2026\/08\/03\/greve-compagnie-aerienne-vol-annule-indemnisation-reacheminement-passager\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Airline strike<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Article by the firm<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/contact\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Contact<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Write to or meet the firm<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"kcv-small kcv-center\">Page updated on 1 November 2026.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n<\/div><\/div>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\": \"https:\/\/schema.org\", \"@type\": \"FAQPage\", \"mainEntity\": [{\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"What does aviation law cover for an individual or a business?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Aviation law brings together rules of different origins that apply to any aircraft able to rise or travel through the air (Article L. 6100-1). For the passenger, it mainly means the European regulation on cancelled or delayed flights and the Montreal Convention, to which the Transport Code refers for the liability of a carrier holding an operating licence (Article L. 6421-3). For the operator, aviation law provides for liability as of right towards third parties on the ground (Article L. 6131-2) and a regime of administrative penalties, notably for airport nuisance (Article L. 6361-12). For the owner, it sets the rules on registration, transfer, mortgage and seizure of the aircraft. This page covers the subject as a whole and the rules specific to operators and owners. The pages on cancelled or delayed flights and on plane crashes detail the remedies available to passengers and victims.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can the European regulation and the Montreal Convention be relied on together?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Yes. The European regulation provides for fixed compensation and standardised assistance measures, whereas the Montreal Convention makes the carrier liable for loss caused by delay, unless it proves that it, its servants and agents took all measures that could reasonably be required to avoid the damage, or that it was impossible for them to do so (Article 19 of the Montreal Convention). The Court of Cassation infers from this that \\\"compensation granted to air passengers on the basis of Article 12 of Regulation No 261\/2004 is intended to supplement the measures provided for by that regulation\\\" (our translation) (Cass. 1re civ., 14 February 2018, No. 16-20.354). In that case, a passenger who had reached her destination late claimed the price of a hotel room. The local judge (juge de proximit\u00e9) had dismissed her claim on the ground that the regulation covers accommodation only if the flight is delayed until the following day. The Court of Cassation overturned that reasoning, since the claim was based on the Convention and not on the right to assistance provided for by the regulation. Loss compensated under the Convention must be proved and remains capped, save in the case of qualified fault by the carrier (Article 22 of the Montreal Convention). For passenger delay, the cap of 4,150 special drawing rights fixed in 1999 has been revised under the mechanism provided for by the Convention: it stands at 6,303 special drawing rights for carriage performed since 28 December 2024 (ICAO press release of 18 October 2024). Each claim is therefore divided between what falls under the fixed compensation and what falls under individualised compensation.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Two years or five years: which time limit applies to an action against the air carrier?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"It depends on the legal basis. An action for liability based on the Montreal Convention must be brought, on pain of forfeiture, within two years running from the date of arrival, the date on which the aircraft ought to have arrived, or the date on which the carriage stopped (Article 35 of the Montreal Convention). That period applies to baggage, cargo, delay and personal injury. The fixed compensation under the European regulation is subject to a different time limit. The Court of Cassation has held that \\\"the action for payment of the fixed compensation was subject to the ordinary five-year limitation period provided for in Article 2224 of the Civil Code\\\" (our translation) (Cass. 1re civ., 14 March 2018, No. 17-15.378), that is, five years from the day on which the passenger knew or ought to have known the facts (Article 2224 of the Civil Code). The same disruption can therefore give rise to two actions that do not expire on the same date. The firm calculates each from the travel documents and, when the two-year time limit approaches, brings the action without waiting for the outcome of amicable discussions.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Lost, damaged or delayed baggage: what written complaints should be made, and when?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The carrier is liable for the loss, damage or destruction of checked baggage where the event took place on board or while the baggage was in its charge, unless the damage results from the nature or inherent defect of the baggage; if the baggage has not arrived twenty-one days after the date on which it ought to have arrived, or if the airline admits its loss, the passenger may exercise their rights as for a loss (Article 17 of the Montreal Convention). For damage and delay, a written complaint is required: in the case of damage, as soon as it is discovered and at the latest seven days after receipt of the baggage; in the case of delay, within twenty-one days of the baggage being placed at the passenger's disposal. Failing that, any action is inadmissible, save in the case of fraud by the carrier (Article 31 of the Montreal Convention). The time limit is applied strictly. In a decision given in Paris, the passenger had received his or her baggage and made a claim only more than twenty-one days after receiving it; the court held that \\\"the claim for compensation based on the loss of the baggage is inadmissible\\\" (our translation) (TJ Paris, 11 March 2025, No. 22\/05748). A ruling unfavourable to the passenger, who was also ordered to pay a sum towards the airline's legal costs. Compensation remains capped. For a passenger deprived of three suitcases, the Paris Court of Appeal recalled that \\\"that sum is a compensation ceiling which covers both material and non-material damage and from which the passenger concerned does not benefit as of right and as a fixed amount, even where baggage is lost\\\" (our translation) (CA Paris, 29 February 2024, No. 21\/03598). That cap, which is 1,519 special drawing rights per passenger for carriage performed since 28 December 2024 (ICAO press release of 18 October 2024), can be raised by a special declaration of interest at check-in (Article 22 of the Montreal Convention). In every case, the contents, value and loss must be supported by probative evidence: the court ruled on the basis of the invoices produced and also compensated the non-material loss, within the limit of the cap.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Is a travel agency liable for a cancelled flight or lost baggage?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"It all depends on what it sold. A professional who sells a travel package or a travel service is liable as of right for their performance; it is relieved of liability, in whole or in part, only by proving that the damage is attributable to the traveller, to a third party unconnected with the provision of the travel services included in the contract, or to unavoidable and extraordinary circumstances (Article L. 211-16 of the Tourism Code). That regime does not apply to the sale of an air transport ticket outside a package (Article L. 211-17-3 of the Tourism Code). The Court of Cassation has drawn the conclusion that \\\"the liability of a travel agency that has supplied only air transport tickets arises only where fault is proved\\\" (our translation) (Cass. 1re civ., 4 June 2025, No. 23-20.062). On that point it set aside the judgment that had ordered the agency to pay jointly and severally with the airline without examining whether its liability, since it maintained that it had sold only tickets, required proven fault, and remitted the case to another court. The nature of the sale remains to be established in every case. The defendant is therefore chosen on the basis of the invoice: package or ticket only. In the second case, the claim is directed first at the carrier, and the agency is joined only if fault on its own part can be established, for example a booking error or a failure to provide information.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Cargo sent by air has been lost: what compensation can the shipper obtain?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The carrier is liable for the loss, damage or destruction of cargo provided the damaging event took place during carriage by air (Article 18 of the Montreal Convention). It is relieved of liability if it proves that the damage results in particular from the inherent defect of the cargo, defective packing performed by someone other than the carrier, an act of war or an act of a public authority. Its liability is also limited per kilogram, unless a special declaration of interest was made when the package was handed over (Article 22 of the Montreal Convention): 17 special drawing rights in the 1999 text, 26 for carriage performed since 28 December 2024 (ICAO press release of 18 October 2024). The cap applies broadly. The commercial chamber of the Court of Cassation approved a court of appeal which, the loss being presumed to have occurred during the air phase and the intermediary having the status of air carrier on the strength of the air waybills, had applied the limits of the Convention without the shipper being able to invoke inexcusable fault to set them aside (Cass. com., 16 June 2021, No. 19-24.510). The shipper's appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed: a ruling unfavourable to the shipper. The Convention, moreover, provides for the caps to be lifted for qualified fault only in the case of delay affecting passengers and baggage. For a consignment of value, protection is prepared before departure: declaration of value, ad valorem insurance, then a written complaint in the case of damage, as soon as it is discovered and at the latest fourteen days after receipt, or within twenty-one days of the goods being placed at the consignee's disposal in the case of delay (Article 31 of the Montreal Convention). The firm reads the air waybills and the general terms to identify who is the carrier and who is merely a commission agent.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can an operator be penalised for taking off outside the permitted hours?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Yes. The Airport Nuisance Control Authority (Autorit\u00e9 de contr\u00f4le des nuisances a\u00e9roportuaires) imposes an administrative fine on any person who fails to comply with the operating restrictions set at an aerodrome, in particular restrictions on night flights (Article L. 6361-12). For a legal entity, the cap is \u20ac20,000 per breach, raised to \u20ac40,000 in particular for night flights, and the decision may be challenged by way of a full-jurisdiction challenge (Article L. 6361-13). A challenge does not always wipe out the penalty. For two take-offs in breach of the Nice curfew, the administrative court had annulled the authority's decisions for breach of the principle of impartiality and then itself imposed two fines; the Paris administrative court of appeal (cour administrative d'appel) dismissed the airline's appeal, holding in particular that a summons received twenty-seven days before the hearing had not deprived it of any safeguard (CAA Paris, 17 July 2023, No. 21PA00724). A ruling unfavourable to the operator. The firm examines the evidence of the timings, the regularity of the report, the notification of the alleged breaches and the composition of the panel that ruled, then assesses whether a defect could have influenced the decision or deprived the operator of a safeguard.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can an airline be penalised for disembarking a passenger without a valid document?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Yes. The carrier may board a passenger for international carriage only after proof of the passenger's right to land at the destination and at stopovers (Article L. 6421-2). An air transport company that disembarks in France, from a State that is not party to the Schengen Convention, a foreign national who is not a national of a European Union State or of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway or Switzerland and who lacks the required travel document or visa, is liable to an administrative fine (Article L. 821-6 of the Code on the Entry and Residence of Foreigners and the Right of Asylum). The fine is not imposed, in particular, where the airline establishes that the required documents were presented to it at boarding and showed no manifest irregularity (Article L. 821-8 of the same Code). The court checks whether the irregularity was manifest. For a passenger holding a manifestly forged passport, the Paris administrative court of appeal held that the defects could have been detected by a normally attentive examination by the airline's staff and dismissed the carrier's application (CAA Paris, 7 June 2024, No. 23PA02574). A ruling unfavourable to the airline, which obtained no reduction of the fine. The defence turns on the report, on whether the documents were actually presented at boarding, and on how they looked. The firm gathers the documents relating to the check before drafting the written observations or the challenge.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Who owns an aircraft: the person who paid for it or the person entered in the register?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"An aircraft is movable property, but its transfer is recorded in writing and takes effect against third parties only once it is entered in the French aircraft register (Article L. 6121-2). That entry constitutes title of ownership and the register is public (Article L. 6121-1). An aircraft may, moreover, fly only if it is registered, subject to exceptions specific to certain drones (Article L. 6111-1). This public registration has powerful effects. Whereas a claim to recover movable property must in principle be brought within three months of publication of the judgment opening the proceedings (Article L. 624-9 of the Commercial Code), the Court of Cassation has held that \\\"as ownership of the aircraft is, by virtue of its registration, enforceable against everyone, it is necessarily enforceable against the insolvency proceedings, and the owner is not subject to the procedure for reclaiming property provided for in Article L. 624-9 of the Commercial Code\\\" (our translation) (Cass. com., 27 March 2024, No. 22-14.028). The liquidator of the company in liquidation therefore could not raise the time bar against the registered owner. Registration also serves financing: a registered aircraft may be encumbered with a contractual mortgage (Article L. 6122-1), created in writing on pain of nullity (Article L. 6122-2). The firm checks the register before any acquisition, lease or taking of security.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can a creditor have an aircraft seized by way of protective attachment?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Ordinary law allows it to any person whose claim appears well founded in principle and who shows circumstances threatening recovery of it (Article L. 511-1 of the Code of Civil Enforcement Procedures). The enforcement judge authorises protective measures (Article L. 213-6 of the Code of Judicial Organisation). For a foreign aircraft, the Court of Cassation settled the question of jurisdiction after referring to the Council of State: \\\"the enforcement judge exclusively authorises protective attachments of aircraft of foreign nationality or whose owner is not domiciled in France\\\" (our translation) (Cass. 2e civ., 2 February 2023, No. 21-17.459), subject to the optional jurisdiction held concurrently by the president of the commercial court. The text that designated the local court judge of the place of landing had been declared unlawful. Aircraft assigned to a State service or to public transport enjoy protection: without prejudice to the special procedures of the Transport Code, they may be seized by way of protective attachment only for sums owed by the owner in respect of their acquisition or of training or maintenance contracts linked to their operation, or for certain taxes (Article L. 6123-1). Among those special procedures, the minister responsible for transport, the aerodrome operator and the Airport Nuisance Control Authority may, after formal notice, require protective attachment of the aircraft for unpaid charges or fines (Article L. 6123-2). The firm checks the nature of the claim before filing the application.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"If an aircraft is leased, is the owner liable for damage caused to third parties?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"In principle yes, jointly and severally with the operator. The Transport Code provides, however, that if the lease has been entered in the aircraft register, the owner is liable for damage caused to third parties only if they establish fault on its part (Article L. 6131-4). Towards persons and property on the surface, the operator remains liable as of right, and only fault by the victim can reduce or remove its liability (Article L. 6131-2). Where two aircraft in motion collide, on the other hand, the liability of the pilot and the operator falls under the Civil Code (Article L. 6131-1). For an owner who leases out an aircraft, to a flying club, a school or an operator, entering the lease in the register is therefore a simple precaution. The contract, its publication in the register and the insurance cover are prepared together, before the aircraft is handed over.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Does the air carrier's compensation cap apply to the victims' guarantee fund?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"No. Where an air accident has the material character of an offence, the victim may apply to the Victims' Compensation Commission (CIVI), but on the conditions of Article 706-3 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (Code de proc\u00e9dure p\u00e9nale): the damage must result from an injury to the person, the facts must in principle have caused death, permanent incapacity or total personal incapacity to work of at least one month, and the victim must be of French nationality or the facts must have been committed on French territory. Compensation is then full, subject to reduction or refusal in the case of fault by the victim. The Court of Cassation has held that the guarantee fund \\\"could not benefit from the cap on liability established by the Warsaw Convention in favour of the air carrier\\\" (our translation) (Cass. 2e civ., 10 February 2022, No. 20-20.814). In that case, the court of appeal had limited compensation to the cap in the Warsaw Convention, which Article L. 6421-4, in the version applicable to the dispute, applied to a carrier without an operating licence. That text now refers to the Montreal Convention for carriers not covered by Article L. 6421-3 (Article L. 6421-4). The victim is therefore not confined to the carrier's cap where the route through the commission is open. The firm compares the compensation routes available, against the operator, its insurer or the fund, before choosing the order of steps.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can a drone or an aircraft freely fly over private property?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The right of overflight exists, but it may not be exercised in conditions that would impede the exercise of the owner's rights (Article L. 6211-3). An owner who suffers repeated, low or intrusive overflight therefore has a basis for acting, to be assessed according to the circumstances. The remote pilot must have undergone training enabling them to control the aircraft's movement safely, with an exception for certain light aircraft used in model aircraft clubs (Article L. 6214-2). Drones weighing more than twenty-five kilograms or whose design is subject to certification must also be registered (Article L. 6111-1). Since a drone is an aircraft within the meaning of the Transport Code (Article L. 6100-1), its operator is liable as of right for damage caused to persons and property on the surface (Article L. 6131-2). The firm examines the position of the overflown owner as well as that of the remote pilot concerned.\"}}]}<\/script>\n<script nowprocket data-no-optimize=\"1\" data-no-defer=\"1\">\n(function(){\n  var root = document.querySelector('.kccm .kcv'); if (!root) return;\n  var tabs = root.querySelector('#kcv-cabinet'); if (!tabs) return;\n  var ch = [].slice.call(tabs.querySelectorAll('.kcv-chip-t'));\n  var sl = [].slice.call(tabs.querySelectorAll('.kcv-slide'));\n  if (!ch.length || !sl.length) return;\n  root.classList.add('js');\n  function show(id, focus){\n    var c = ch.filter(function(x){ return x.getAttribute('aria-controls') === id; })[0]; if (!c) return false;\n    ch.forEach(function(x){ var on = x === c; x.classList.toggle('on', on); x.setAttribute('aria-selected', on ? 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