{"id":2161241,"date":"2026-11-01T23:11:13","date_gmt":"2026-11-01T22:11:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/?page_id=2161241"},"modified":"2026-11-04T19:38:20","modified_gmt":"2026-11-04T18:38:20","slug":"commercial-law-lawyer-paris","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/commercial-law-lawyer-paris\/","title":{"rendered":"Commercial law lawyer in Paris: trader status, proof of acts and sale of a business"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"2161241\" class=\"elementor elementor-2161241 elementor-2160670\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-v5bd59a e-con-full e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"v5bd59a\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-v5bd59aw elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"v5bd59aw\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"kcv\" id=\"kci-root\" data-refresh-marker=\"expertise-fr-avocat-droit-commercial-paris-20261101\">\n<section class=\"kcv-hero\" aria-labelledby=\"kch-h1\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-in\">\n    <div class=\"kcv-head\">\n      <p class=\"kk\">Traders, commercial acts, evidence, businesses (fonds de commerce) and professional customs<\/p>\n      <h1 id=\"kch-h1\"><em>Commercial law lawyer<\/em> in Paris:<span class=\"kcv-tail\"> trader status, proof of acts and sale of a business.<\/span><\/h1>\n      <p class=\"kcv-sub\">A commercial law lawyer in Paris A commercial law lawyer in Paris deals with the rules that commercial law applies to traders and commercial acts, distinct from those of civil law: freedom of evidence, a five-year limitation period, joint and several liability between co-debtors, professional customs, jurisdiction of the commercial court and a specific regime for the business (fonds de commerce). It must still be established that the rule applies to the person and the act concerned.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"kcv-btns\">\n        <a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-tel\" href=\"tel:+33646605822\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"currentColor\" stroke=\"none\" stroke-width=\"0\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 16.9v3a2 2 0 0 1-2.2 2 19.8 19.8 0 0 1-8.6-3.1 19.5 19.5 0 0 1-6-6A19.8 19.8 0 0 1 2.1 4.2 2 2 0 0 1 4.1 2h3a2 2 0 0 1 2 1.7c.1.9.4 1.8.7 2.7a2 2 0 0 1-.5 2.1L8 9.8a16 16 0 0 0 6 6l1.3-1.3a2 2 0 0 1 2.1-.4c.9.3 1.8.6 2.7.7a2 2 0 0 1 1.7 2z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Call the firm<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">06&nbsp;46&nbsp;60&nbsp;58&nbsp;22<\/span><\/span><\/a>\n        <a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-mail\" href=\"#kch-form\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"2.5\" y=\"4.5\" width=\"19\" height=\"15\" rx=\"2.5\"\/><path d=\"m3.5 6.5 8.5 6.5 8.5-6.5\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Send your documents<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">confidential form<\/span><\/span><\/a>\n      <\/div>\n      <p class=\"kcv-urg\">Classification is decided on documents: extract from the register, contracts, invoices, correspondence and accounts. Gather them before choosing the limitation period, the court and the method of proof that apply.<\/p>\n    <\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcv-stagewrap\"><div class=\"kcv-stageshadow\"><div class=\"kcv-stage\">\n      <link rel=\"preload\" as=\"image\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/kohen-v3-expertises\/kohen-fr-droit-bancaire-paysage-20261025.webp\" media=\"(min-width:761px)\" fetchpriority=\"high\">\n      <link rel=\"preload\" as=\"image\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/kohen-v3-expertises\/kohen-fr-droit-bancaire-paysage-1080-20261025.webp\" media=\"(max-width:760px)\" fetchpriority=\"high\">\n      <div class=\"kcv-media\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"--kcv-img:url('https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/kohen-v3-expertises\/kohen-fr-droit-bancaire-paysage-20261025.webp');--kcv-img-m:url('https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/kohen-v3-expertises\/kohen-fr-droit-bancaire-paysage-1080-20261025.webp')\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"kcv-panel kcv-glass\" id=\"kch-form\">\n        <div class=\"kcv-panel-head\">\n          <div>\n            <p class=\"kcv-panel-k\">Commercial law \u00b7 Paris<\/p>\n            <h2 class=\"kcv-panel-t\">Get a <em>first analysis<\/em><\/h2>\n            <p class=\"kcv-panel-l\">Send the register extract, contracts, purchase orders, invoices and relevant exchanges: the firm examines the status of the parties, the nature of the act and the rules of evidence and time limits that follow.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"kcv-chip kcv-glass\"><p class=\"kcv-chip-n\">24 \u00e0 48 h<\/p><p class=\"kcv-chip-x\">first legal<br>review<\/p><\/div>\n        <\/div>\n        <div class=\"kcf-wrap\">\n<form id=\"kcf-2form\" data-kcf data-api-url=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-json\/kohen-form\/v1\/submit\" data-vps-url=\"https:\/\/upload-fr.46-224-152-225.sslip.io\/submit\" data-max-size=\"1073741824\" data-max-files=\"500\" novalidate enctype=\"multipart\/form-data\">\n  <input type=\"hidden\" name=\"rendered_at\" value=\"1776847557\">\n  <div class=\"kcf-hp\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><label for=\"kcf-2website\">Do not fill in<\/label><input id=\"kcf-2website\" name=\"website\" type=\"text\" tabindex=\"-1\" autocomplete=\"off\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcf-price\">\n    <span class=\"kcf-price-amount\">\u20ac80<small>incl. VAT<\/small><\/span>\n    <div class=\"kcf-price-body\">\n      <p class=\"kcf-price-text\"><strong>Preliminary review of your case.<\/strong> Examination of your documents and a first written analysis by Reda Kohen, within 24 to 48 business hours. Payment is made online after this form is sent.<\/p>\n      <ul class=\"kcf-price-meta\">\n        <li>Up to 1 GB of documents, folders and subfolders accepted<\/li>\n        <li>Secure payment, no banking data stored<\/li>\n        <li><a href=\"\/conditions-etude-prealable\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Terms and fee agreement<\/a><\/li>\n      <\/ul>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcf-row\">\n    <div class=\"kcf-group\">\n      <label class=\"kcf-label\" for=\"kcf-2name\">Full name<\/label>\n      <input class=\"kcf-input\" type=\"text\" id=\"kcf-2name\" name=\"name\" placeholder=\"Your name\" required autocomplete=\"name\" aria-describedby=\"kcf-2name-err\">\n      <p class=\"kcf-field-error\" id=\"kcf-2name-err\" role=\"alert\"><\/p>\n    <\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcf-group\">\n      <label class=\"kcf-label\" for=\"kcf-2phone\">Telephone <span class=\"kcf-optional\">(optional)<\/span><\/label>\n      <input class=\"kcf-input\" type=\"tel\" inputmode=\"tel\" id=\"kcf-2phone\" name=\"phone\" placeholder=\"06 00 00 00 00\" autocomplete=\"tel\" aria-describedby=\"kcf-2phone-err\">\n      <p class=\"kcf-field-error\" id=\"kcf-2phone-err\" role=\"alert\"><\/p>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcf-group\">\n    <label class=\"kcf-label\" for=\"kcf-2email\">Email address<\/label>\n    <input class=\"kcf-input\" type=\"email\" id=\"kcf-2email\" name=\"email\" placeholder=\"your@email.com\" required autocomplete=\"email\" spellcheck=\"false\" autocapitalize=\"off\" aria-describedby=\"kcf-2email-err\">\n    <p class=\"kcf-field-error\" id=\"kcf-2email-err\" role=\"alert\"><\/p>\n  <\/div>\n  \n  <div class=\"kcf-group\">\n    <label class=\"kcf-label\" for=\"kcf-2message\">Message<\/label>\n    <textarea class=\"kcf-textarea\" id=\"kcf-2message\" name=\"message\" placeholder=\"Briefly describe your situation...\" required aria-describedby=\"kcf-2message-err\"><\/textarea>\n    <p class=\"kcf-field-error\" id=\"kcf-2message-err\" role=\"alert\"><\/p>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcf-group\">\n    <label class=\"kcf-label\">Attachments <span class=\"kcf-optional\">(optional, 500 files max, 1 GB)<\/span><\/label>\n    <div class=\"kcf-dropzone\" id=\"kcf-2dropzone\">\n      <svg class=\"kcf-dropzone-icon\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"1.5\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M21 15v4a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H5a2 2 0 0 1-2-2v-4\"\/><polyline points=\"17 8 12 3 7 8\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"3\" x2=\"12\" y2=\"15\"\/><\/svg>\n      <p class=\"kcf-dropzone-text\"><strong>Click<\/strong> or drag your files here<br>All formats accepted (PDF, Word, images, etc.)<\/p>\n      <input type=\"file\" name=\"attachments\" id=\"kcf-2files\" multiple>\n    <\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcf-file-list\" id=\"kcf-2filelist\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcf-progress\" id=\"kcf-2progress\">\n      <div class=\"kcf-progress-bar\"><div class=\"kcf-progress-fill\" id=\"kcf-2progressfill\"><\/div><\/div>\n      <p class=\"kcf-progress-text\" id=\"kcf-2progresstext\">Sending...<\/p>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n  <button type=\"submit\" class=\"kcf-btn\">\n    <span class=\"kcf-spinner\"><\/span>\n    <span class=\"kcf-btn-text\">Pay \u20ac80 and send my case<\/span>\n  <\/button>\n  <div class=\"kcf-msg\" role=\"status\" aria-live=\"polite\" aria-atomic=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\"><\/div>\n  <p class=\"kcf-note\">Payment constitutes a request for immediate performance of your analysis. 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4px;padding:0 24px;text-align:center;line-height:1}.knp a.knp__videos{display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:8px;padding:9px 18px 9px 14px;border:1px solid #CFDEF0;border-radius:999px;background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#E6EEF8 100%);color:#1F4FA8;font-family:inherit;font-size:14px;font-weight:600;letter-spacing:.01em;line-height:1.2;text-decoration:none;transition:border-color .2s ease,box-shadow .2s ease,transform .2s ease}.knp a.knp__videos svg{flex:0 0 auto;display:block}.knp a.knp__videos:hover{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFFFFF 0%,#DCEAFB 100%);border-color:#1F4FA8;color:#1F4FA8;box-shadow:0 6px 18px rgba(31,79,168,.14);transform:translateY(-1px)}.knp a.knp__videos:focus-visible{outline:2px solid #1F4FA8;outline-offset:3px}.kcv-press.knp{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:center;align-items:center;column-gap:14px}.kcv-press.knp>.kcv-press-t,.kcv-press.knp>.knp__watchlink{flex:0 0 auto}.kcv-press.knp>.knp__piste{flex:0 0 100%}.kcv-press.knp 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l'\u00c9tat.\",\"auteur\":\"data.gouv.fr\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la fiche sur data.gouv.fr\"},{\"titre\":\"Commentaires des d\u00e9cisions de justice par l'IA g\u00e9n\u00e9rative\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.data.gouv.fr\/reuses\/commentaires-des-decisions-de-justice-par-lia-generative\",\"citation\":\"R\u00e9utilisation des donn\u00e9es publiques de justice publi\u00e9e par Kohen Avocats et r\u00e9f\u00e9renc\u00e9e sur data.gouv.fr.\",\"auteur\":\"data.gouv.fr\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la r\u00e9utilisation sur data.gouv.fr\"}]},\"awwwards\":{\"nom\":\"Awwwards\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Kohen Avocats, site nomm\u00e9 aux Awwwards\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.awwwards.com\/sites\/kohen-avocats\",\"citation\":\"Le site du cabinet figure parmi les sites nomm\u00e9s (\u00ab Nominee \u00bb) par Awwwards, r\u00e9f\u00e9rence internationale du design web.\",\"auteur\":\"Awwwards\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la fiche sur Awwwards\"}]},\"pappers\":{\"nom\":\"Pappers\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Divorce du dirigeant : ce que le r\u00e9gime matrimonial change pour votre soci\u00e9t\u00e9\",\"date\":\"2026-09-04\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.pappers.fr\/gestion-entreprise\/divorce-dirigeant-regime-matrimonial\",\"citation\":\"Le dirigeant a int\u00e9r\u00eat \u00e0 faire travailler ensemble son expert-comptable, son notaire et un avocat sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9 en droit de la famille \u00e0 Paris.\",\"auteur\":\"Pappers\",\"paraphrase\":true},{\"titre\":\"Ma\u00eetre KOHEN Reda, avocat \u00e0 Paris\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/justice.pappers.fr\/avocat\/kohen-reda-75017\",\"citation\":\"Fiche de Me Reda Kohen sur Pappers Justice, avec les d\u00e9cisions de justice publi\u00e9es o\u00f9 il est intervenu.\",\"auteur\":\"Pappers Justice\",\"paraphrase\":true,\"libelle\":\"Voir la fiche sur Pappers Justice\"}]},\"leboncoin\":{\"nom\":\"Leboncoin\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Bouilloires thermiques : bient\u00f4t interdites \u00e0 la location ?\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.leboncoin.fr\/guide\/immobilier\/bouilloires-thermiques-bientot-interdites-a-la-location-hfpj70o6.html\",\"citation\":\"Le guide immobilier cite une analyse de kohenavocats.fr parmi ses sources.\",\"auteur\":\"Leboncoin\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"femme-actuelle\":{\"nom\":\"Femme Actuelle\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"S\u00e9paration ou divorce : quelle banque et quel cr\u00e9dit pour repartir sur de bonnes bases ?\",\"date\":\"2026-09-30\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.femmeactuelle.fr\/vie-pratique\/news-vie-pratique\/separation-ou-divorce-quelle-banque-et-quel-credit-pour-repartir-sur-de-bonnes-bases-2211980\",\"citation\":\"L'article cite une analyse de kohenavocats.com parmi ses sources.\",\"auteur\":\"Femme Actuelle\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"economie-matin\":{\"nom\":\"\u00c9conomie Matin\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Nouveau bail 2026 : ce que les propri\u00e9taires doivent anticiper d\u00e8s maintenant\",\"date\":\"2026-09-10\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.economiematin.fr\/bail-nouveau-2026-proprietaires-anticiper\",\"citation\":\"Sur le d\u00e9cret n\u00b0 2026-596 du 7 juillet 2026, l'article renvoie \u00e0 l'analyse publi\u00e9e par le cabinet.\",\"auteur\":\"\u00c9conomie Matin\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"la-voix-du-nord\":{\"nom\":\"La Voix du Nord\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Que risquent les personnes qui ach\u00e8tent des objets vol\u00e9s le 17 octobre ?\",\"date\":\"2026-10-19\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.lavoixdunord.fr\/1747700\/article\/2026-10-19\/que-risquent-les-personnes-qui-achetent-des-objets-voles-le-17-octobre\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019infraction suppose la connaissance de l\u2019origine : savoir que l\u2019objet provient d\u2019un vol.\",\"auteur\":\"Me Hassan Kohen\"}]},\"sortir-a-paris\":{\"nom\":\"Sortir \u00e0 Paris\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Manifestation du 24 octobre \u00e0 Paris : parcours, nouvelles stations ferm\u00e9es, les infos\",\"date\":\"2026-10-20\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.sortiraparis.com\/actualites\/a-paris\/articles\/355171-manifestation-du-24-octobre-a-paris-parcours-nouvelles-stations-fermees-les-infos\",\"citation\":\"Sur le d\u00e9lai de d\u00e9claration d\u2019une manifestation \u00e0 Paris, l\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 l\u2019analyse du cabinet, pr\u00e9sent\u00e9 comme \u00ab un avocat p\u00e9naliste parisien \u00bb.\",\"auteur\":\"Sortir \u00e0 Paris\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"science-et-vie\":{\"nom\":\"Science \\u0026 Vie\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Canicule : sans climatisation, ces quelques gestes simples permettraient de faire chuter la temp\u00e9rature de votre logement\",\"date\":\"2026-07-07\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.science-et-vie.com\/nature-et-environnement\/climat\/canicule-sans-climatisation-quelques-gestes-simples-permettraient-de-faire-chuter-la-temperature-de-votre-logement-247975.html\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 deux analyses du cabinet : l\u2019obligation de d\u00e9livrer un logement d\u00e9cent pendant toute la dur\u00e9e du bail et l\u2019ordonnance du tribunal judiciaire de B\u00e9ziers du 31 mars 2026 sur une climatisation install\u00e9e sans autorisation.\",\"auteur\":\"Science \\u0026 Vie\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"frandroid\":{\"nom\":\"Frandroid\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Fin de Rakuten France : comment r\u00e9cup\u00e9rer vos factures, vos garanties et vos points Club R\",\"date\":\"2026-09-30\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.frandroid.com\/culture-tech\/web\/3266559_fin-de-rakuten-france-comment-recuperer-vos-factures-vos-garanties-et-vos-points-club-r\",\"citation\":\"Le cabinet Kohen Avocats leur conseille de retirer cet argent et de t\u00e9l\u00e9charger tout leur historique avant le 10 novembre.\",\"auteur\":\"Frandroid\",\"paraphrase\":true},{\"titre\":\"Goutte-\u00e0-goutte et inondation : que faire quand la climatisation du voisin ruine votre terrasse ?\",\"date\":\"2026-07-28\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.frandroid.com\/produits-android\/maison-connectee\/climatiseur\/3196305_goutte-a-goutte-et-inondation-que-faire-quand-la-climatisation-du-voisin-ruine-votre-terrasse\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019article renvoie \u00e0 la grille de lecture juridique publi\u00e9e par le cabinet sur les condensats de climatisation en copropri\u00e9t\u00e9.\",\"auteur\":\"Frandroid\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"magicmaman\":{\"nom\":\"Magicmaman\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Vous vivez en immeuble et vous n\u2019avez toujours pas de chauffage cet automne ? Voil\u00e0 pourquoi\",\"date\":\"2026-10-25\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.magicmaman.com\/vous-vivez-en-immeuble-et-vous-n-avez-toujours-pas-de-chauffage-cet-automne-voila-pourquoi,3787269.asp\",\"citation\":\"Cette date nationale n\u2019existe pas. La loi ne fixe pas un calendrier d\u2019allumage commun \u00e0 tous les immeubles.\",\"auteur\":\"Cabinet Kohen Avocats\"}]},\"next\":{\"nom\":\"Next\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Fin de Bloctel, interdiction du d\u00e9marchage d\u00e8s le 11 ao\u00fbt : on fait le point\",\"date\":\"2026-08-04\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/next.ink\/249950\/fin-de-bloctel-interdiction-du-demarchage-des-le-11-aout-on-fait-le-point\/\",\"citation\":\"Selon le cabinet Kohen Avocats, les jurisprudences dans ce secteur devraient \u00ab \u00e9clairer la port\u00e9e du futur r\u00e9gime \u00bb.\",\"auteur\":\"Next\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"actu-juridique\":{\"nom\":\"Actu-Juridique\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Magistrature et franc-ma\u00e7onnerie : que dit le droit ?\",\"date\":\"2026-09-22\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.actu-juridique.fr\/professions\/magistrats\/magistrature-et-franc-maconnerie-stupeur-et-evitements\/\",\"citation\":\"L\u2019article cite en r\u00e9f\u00e9rence l\u2019analyse de Ma\u00eetre Hassan Kohen, avocat en droit p\u00e9nal \u00e0 Paris, sur l\u2019avis du Coll\u00e8ge de d\u00e9ontologie du 9 juin 2026.\",\"auteur\":\"Actu-Juridique\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"batiweb\":{\"nom\":\"Batiweb\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Mayotte : Lecornu veut un \u00ab choc de mises en chantier \u00bb\",\"date\":\"2026-08-27\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.batiweb.com\/actualites\/urbanisme\/reconstruction-mayotte-lecornu-choc-mises-chantier-49208\",\"citation\":\"Sur les autorisations d\u2019urbanisme n\u00e9cessaires \u00e0 la reconstruction de Mayotte, l\u2019article cite les explications de Me Reda Kohen.\",\"auteur\":\"Batiweb\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"berliner-zeitung\":{\"nom\":\"Berliner Zeitung\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Null Euro Miete, daf\u00fcr Quizabende mit Rentnern: Wie eine 18-J\u00e4hrige ins Seniorenheim zog\",\"date\":\"2026-09-21\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.berliner-zeitung.de\/article\/null-euro-miete-dafuer-quizabende-mit-rentnern-wie-eine-18-jaehrige-ins-seniorenheim-zog-10414380\",\"citation\":\"Der Pariser Anwalt Reda Kohen ordnet das Modell als Gebrauchsleihe ein: Die Wohnung wird \u00fcberlassen, nicht vermietet.\",\"auteur\":\"Berliner Zeitung\",\"paraphrase\":true}]},\"startupitalia\":{\"nom\":\"StartupItalia\",\"articles\":[{\"titre\":\"Quasi 13 miliardi di dollari di Nvidia per la sconosciuta Hugging Face. 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aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The rules<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p2\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p2\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Your documents<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p3\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p3\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The method<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p4\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p4\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The timetable<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-p5\" aria-controls=\"kcv-p5\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">The checks<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-synthese\" aria-controls=\"kcv-synthese\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Summary<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-faq\" aria-controls=\"kcv-faq\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Questions<\/button><button class=\"kcv-chip-t\" type=\"button\" role=\"tab\" id=\"kcv-t-kcv-textes\" aria-controls=\"kcv-textes\" aria-selected=\"false\" tabindex=\"-1\">Legal texts<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n    <div class=\"kcv-track\"><div class=\"kcv-slide kcv-on\" id=\"kcv-avocat\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-avocat\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<div class=\"kcv-pro\">\n  <figure class=\"kcv-pro-photo\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" src=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/kohen-footer\/portrait-reda-20260920-lignes-orange.jpg\" alt=\"Reda Kohen, lawyer at the Paris Bar\" width=\"1122\" height=\"1402\" loading=\"eager\" decoding=\"async\">\n    <figcaption class=\"kcv-pro-cap kcv-glass\"><span class=\"kcv-pro-capn\">Reda Kohen<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pro-capr\">Lawyer at the Paris Bar<\/span><\/figcaption>\n  <\/figure>\n  <div class=\"kcv-pro-body\">\n    <p class=\"kk\">Business law \u00b7 Paris 17th arrondissement<\/p>\n    <h2>What a <em>commercial law lawyer<\/em> in Paris does<\/h2>\n    <ul class=\"kcv-pro-tags\"><li>Paris Bar<\/li><li>Traders<\/li><li>Business sales<\/li><\/ul>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">Reda Kohen, lawyer (avocat) at the Paris Bar, can act in business law, in particular on trader status, proof of commercial acts and transactions involving a business (fonds de commerce).<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">A single transaction may fall under civil law for one party and commercial law for the other. The firm therefore starts by classifying each party and each act, because this classification governs the evidence, the time limit for acting and the competent court.<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">The French Commercial Code (Code de commerce) deems those who carry out commercial acts and make them their regular profession to be traders (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 121-1 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). The analysis then turns to the statutory list of commercial acts, the rules of evidence specific to traders and the formalities that protect the buyer of a business.<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-p\">Send what you have, even if incomplete: the firm will prioritise and complete the file with you. In an emergency, call <a href=\"tel:+33646605822\">06 46 60 58 22<\/a>.<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-pro-meta\"><a href=\"https:\/\/consultation.avocat.fr\/avocat-paris\/reda-kohen-54670.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Official profile in the directory of French lawyers (CNB)<\/a><span>Firm at 11 rue Margueritte, 75017 Paris<\/span><\/p>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-cards\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-card\"><h3>Classify before acting<\/h3><p>Trader status and the commercial nature of the act are established on documents, party by party, before any choice of procedure.<\/p><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-card\"><h3>More flexible evidence<\/h3><p>Between traders, a commercial act may be proved by any means, unless the law provides otherwise, which gives weight to exchanges, invoices and accounting entries.<\/p><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-card\"><h3>The business sale<\/h3><p>The sale of a business is subject to publicity and an opposition period, and failure to comply exposes the buyer to paying twice.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p1\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p1\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The rules<\/p>\n<h2>Trader, commercial act, business: <em>the applicable rules<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">Five rules of the Commercial Code structure the analysis of a commercial situation.<\/p>\n<ol class=\"kcv-conds\">\n  <li>Traders are those who carry out commercial acts as their regular profession (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 121-1 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). The Commercial Chamber of the Court of Cassation upheld a court of appeal that had held that contracts signed by a founding shareholder \u201cdid not constitute commercial acts as regards him, since they were signed in his capacity as corporate officer on behalf of those entities and not on his own account\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca5cefdd8a3d3b70ce7d01\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 29 January 2020, No. 19-12.584<\/a>) (our translation).<\/li>\n  <li>Registration of an individual gives rise to a presumption of trader status, subject to proof to the contrary (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219293\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219293\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 123-7 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). A person required to register who has not applied for registration within fifteen days of starting activity cannot, until registered, rely on that status, but remains bound by the obligations attached to it (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 123-8<\/a>).<\/li>\n  <li>As regards traders, commercial acts may be proved by any means, unless the law provides otherwise (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-3 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). Outside that framework, an act concerning a sum above the threshold set by decree requires a written document (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032042311\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032042311\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1359 of the French Civil Code<\/a>).<\/li>\n  <li>Between traders, as between a trader and a non-trader, obligations arising in connection with trade are subject to a five-year limitation period, unless a shorter special period applies (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000027725867\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000027725867\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-4 of the Commercial Code<\/a>).<\/li>\n  <li>Subject to the rules on contributions to a company and to transfers ordered by the court under Article L. 642-5, the sale of a business is published within fifteen days, and the seller's creditors then have ten days to lodge an opposition to payment of the price (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038584414\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038584414\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Articles L. 141-12<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388390\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388390\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">L. 141-14 of the Commercial Code<\/a>).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"kcv-callout\"><span class=\"kcv-callout-i\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M9.6 6C6.5 7.4 4.5 10 4.5 13.4V18h6v-6H7.6c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L9.6 6zm9 0c-3.1 1.4-5.1 4-5.1 7.4V18h6v-6h-2.9c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L18.6 6z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><p>A commercial rule applies only to the party and the act that meet its conditions. In a contract concluded with a non-trader, each rule is checked separately, for each party.<\/p><\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p2\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p2\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Your documents<\/p>\n<h2>What to send, depending on <em>your position<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The status of the parties and the nature of the act are shown by dated documents.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-duel\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-opt kcv-opt-a\"><p class=\"kcv-opt-k\">Position A<\/p><p class=\"kcv-opt-t\">You are claiming performance of a commercial commitment<\/p><ul><li>Register extracts for both parties and articles of association if a company is involved<\/li><li>Quotes, purchase orders, delivery notes, invoices and the applicable general terms<\/li><li>Emails, messages and statements showing the agreement, its performance or the absence of any objection<\/li><li>Accounting extracts and payment due dates, to fix the starting point of the time limit<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-or\" aria-hidden=\"true\">or<\/div>\n  <div class=\"kcv-opt kcv-opt-b\"><p class=\"kcv-opt-k\">Position B<\/p><p class=\"kcv-opt-t\">A commercial rule is being invoked against you<\/p><ul><li>Formal notice, writ of summons or letter invoking trader status or joint and several liability<\/li><li>Documents showing your actual activity, whether civil, professional, agricultural or as an employee<\/li><li>Acts signed as a company officer, stating the company represented<\/li><li>General terms received, with the date and form in which they were communicated<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-callout\"><span class=\"kcv-callout-i\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M9.6 6C6.5 7.4 4.5 10 4.5 13.4V18h6v-6H7.6c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L9.6 6zm9 0c-3.1 1.4-5.1 4-5.1 7.4V18h6v-6h-2.9c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L18.6 6z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><p>Before producing a certificate or a corrective invoice, weigh the effect of that document on the classification of the commercial relationship and on the starting point of the time limit.<\/p><\/div>\n<p class=\"kcv-p\">The firm also handles:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"kcv-pro-tags\"><li>Commercial leases<\/li><li>Commercial litigation<\/li><li>Unpaid invoice<\/li><li>Distribution agreements<\/li><\/ul><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p3\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p3\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The method<\/p>\n<h2>How the firm <em>supports you<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">Classify the parties and the act, fix the evidence, then choose the route.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-rows\">\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 1<\/p><h3>Review of documents and chronology<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">The firm reconstructs the relationship in order, distinguishes what is signed, what is exchanged and what is merely asserted, then identifies the due dates.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 2<\/p><h3>Classification of the parties and the act<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Trader or not, commercial act by nature, by form or as an accessory, mixed act: the answer determines the evidence, the time limit and the court.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 3<\/p><h3>Building the evidence<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Invoices, correspondence, properly kept accounts and the customs relied on are gathered and tied to the fact they are meant to establish.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Step 4<\/p><h3>Claim, negotiation or court action<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\">Depending on the file, the firm can prepare a formal notice, a draft agreement or the referral to the competent court, first checking the jurisdiction clauses.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-callout\"><span class=\"kcv-callout-i\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M9.6 6C6.5 7.4 4.5 10 4.5 13.4V18h6v-6H7.6c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L9.6 6zm9 0c-3.1 1.4-5.1 4-5.1 7.4V18h6v-6h-2.9c.2-1.9 1.4-3.4 3.2-4.3L18.6 6z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><p>A single document rarely proves on its own both the act and the status of the party. It is the consistency of the documents that makes the demonstration clear to the judge.<\/p><\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p4\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p4\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The timetable<\/p>\n<h2>The timeline <em>of a commercial issue<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">From the creation of the obligation to the decision or agreement.<\/p>\n<ol class=\"kcv-hs\"><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Creation of the obligation<\/p><p><strong>From the order or the service.<\/strong> Keep the quote, the order, the delivery or the end of the service: these dates may fix when the debt falls due.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Invoicing<\/p><p>The payment date stated on the invoice may be the starting point of the limitation period, depending on the circumstances.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Checking capacities<\/p><p>Consult the register, the articles of association and the signature of the acts to find out who contracted, and in what capacity.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Claim<\/p><p>Send a precise, quantified request with the supporting documents to the debtor and, where applicable, to the jointly and severally liable co-debtors.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Choice of court<\/p><p>Check the jurisdiction clause, the arbitration clause and the status of the parties before any court action.<\/p><\/li><li><span class=\"kcv-hs-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/span><p class=\"kcv-tl-t\">Agreement or decision<\/p><p><strong>After court action brought within the limitation period.<\/strong> A claim brought in court interrupts the limitation period, and this effect lasts until the proceedings come to an end (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017098\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017098\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Articles 2241<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017096\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017096\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">2242 of the Civil Code<\/a>). The outcome may then take the form of a settlement agreement, staggered payment or a decision of the competent court.<\/p><\/li><\/ol><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-p5\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-p5\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">The checks<\/p>\n<h2>What the firm checks <em>before acting<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">Each commercial rule rests on a condition that is checked on documents.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-split\">\n  <ul class=\"kcv-check\"><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Status of each party: registration, activity actually carried on, signature in one's own name or as a company representative.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Nature of the act: commercial act by nature, act performed for the needs of a business, mixed act or civil act.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Time limit: due date, invoice, completed service and any grounds for interrupting the limitation period.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Court and clauses: jurisdiction of the commercial court, a very prominent jurisdiction clause, an enforceable arbitration clause.<\/span><\/li><li><svg width=\"18\" height=\"18\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#E09019\" stroke-width=\"2.4\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg><span>Business sale: publication of the sale, opposition period, registered pledges and clauses transferring contracts.<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n  <aside class=\"kcv-act\">\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-k\">Case documents<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-t\">Send what you have, even if incomplete<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-p\">Submit your documents through the confidential form at the top of the page: the firm will prioritise and complete the file with you.<\/p>\n    <div class=\"kcv-act-b\"><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-mail\" href=\"#kch-form\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"2.5\" y=\"4.5\" width=\"19\" height=\"15\" rx=\"2.5\"\/><path d=\"m3.5 6.5 8.5 6.5 8.5-6.5\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Send your documents<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">confidential form<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-tel\" href=\"tel:+33646605822\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"currentColor\" stroke=\"none\" stroke-width=\"0\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 16.9v3a2 2 0 0 1-2.2 2 19.8 19.8 0 0 1-8.6-3.1 19.5 19.5 0 0 1-6-6A19.8 19.8 0 0 1 2.1 4.2 2 2 0 0 1 4.1 2h3a2 2 0 0 1 2 1.7c.1.9.4 1.8.7 2.7a2 2 0 0 1-.5 2.1L8 9.8a16 16 0 0 0 6 6l1.3-1.3a2 2 0 0 1 2.1-.4c.9.3 1.8.6 2.7.7a2 2 0 0 1 1.7 2z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Call the firm<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">06&nbsp;46&nbsp;60&nbsp;58&nbsp;22<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n  <\/aside>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-synthese\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-synthese\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Summary<\/p>\n<h2>Situation, evidence, <em>response<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The common configurations make it possible to set the first priority of the case.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-rows\">\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Contract between two commercial companies with no signed document<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Decisive evidence:<\/strong> Consistent orders, emails, deliveries, paid invoices and accounting entries.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Time limit:<\/strong> Five years for obligations arising in connection with trade.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Useful action:<\/strong> Establish the agreement by any means and claim performance or payment.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Company officer pursued as if they were a trader<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Decisive evidence:<\/strong> Acts signed in the company's name, articles of association, actual personal activity.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Time limit:<\/strong> React as soon as the formal notice or writ of summons arrives.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Useful action:<\/strong> Challenge trader status and the commercial nature of the act as regards them.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Old invoice left unpaid<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Decisive evidence:<\/strong> Date of the service, date of issue and the payment date stated.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Time limit:<\/strong> The starting point depends on when the debt fell due.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Useful action:<\/strong> Check the limitation period before any claim, then act or settle.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Several debtors of the same debt<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Decisive evidence:<\/strong> Joint act, transfer of control, clauses on joint and several liability.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Time limit:<\/strong> Interrupt the limitation period as regards each of them.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Useful action:<\/strong> Determine whether joint and several liability is statutory, stipulated or excluded.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Buying a business<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Decisive evidence:<\/strong> Registered sale deed, publication notice, statement of registered charges.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Time limit:<\/strong> Ten days for opposition after the last publication.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Useful action:<\/strong> Hold the price in escrow and release it only after the opposition period, if there is no opposition or once oppositions have been lifted.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"kcv-row\"><div class=\"kcv-row-h\"><p class=\"kcv-row-k\">Situation<\/p><h3>Partner relying on a professional custom<\/h3><\/div><div class=\"kcv-row-b\"><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Decisive evidence:<\/strong> General terms, registered customs, history of the relationship.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Time limit:<\/strong> From the first objection.<\/p><p class=\"kcv-p\"><strong>Useful action:<\/strong> Check whether the other party knew of and accepted the custom.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-faq\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-faq\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Frequently asked questions<\/p>\n<h2>Your questions: <em>commercial law<\/em><\/h2>\n<div class=\"kcv-faqgrid\">\n  <aside class=\"kcv-act kcv-act-sticky\">\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-k\">13 questions<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-t\">A situation not listed here?<\/p>\n    <p class=\"kcv-act-p\">Every case has its own features. The firm reads your documents before answering you.<\/p>\n    <div class=\"kcv-act-b\"><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-tel\" href=\"tel:+33646605822\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"currentColor\" stroke=\"none\" stroke-width=\"0\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 16.9v3a2 2 0 0 1-2.2 2 19.8 19.8 0 0 1-8.6-3.1 19.5 19.5 0 0 1-6-6A19.8 19.8 0 0 1 2.1 4.2 2 2 0 0 1 4.1 2h3a2 2 0 0 1 2 1.7c.1.9.4 1.8.7 2.7a2 2 0 0 1-.5 2.1L8 9.8a16 16 0 0 0 6 6l1.3-1.3a2 2 0 0 1 2.1-.4c.9.3 1.8.6 2.7.7a2 2 0 0 1 1.7 2z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Call the firm<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">06&nbsp;46&nbsp;60&nbsp;58&nbsp;22<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-mail\" href=\"#kch-form\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"2.5\" y=\"4.5\" width=\"19\" height=\"15\" rx=\"2.5\"\/><path d=\"m3.5 6.5 8.5 6.5 8.5-6.5\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Send your documents<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">confidential form<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n  <\/aside>\n  <div class=\"kcv-faq\"><details><summary>Who has trader status under the Commercial Code?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The Commercial Code sets two cumulative conditions: carrying out commercial acts and making them one's regular profession (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 121-1 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). A single act, even one that is commercial by nature, is therefore not enough to make a person a trader. The repetition, duration and professional character of the activity are examined on documents.<\/p><p>The Court of Cassation recalled this in a case concerning a founding shareholder who had transferred control of their company and granted a warranty and indemnity agreement (garantie d'actif et de passif). It upheld the judgment holding that \u201cthose acts were not sufficient, given their limited number, to show that Mr Y... had made them his regular profession, so that he was not a trader\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca5cefdd8a3d3b70ce7d01\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 29 January 2020, No. 19-12.584<\/a>) (our translation). For the company that sought to treat him as a trader, the decision is unfavourable: the appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed.<\/p><p>A company officer who signs in the company's name does not, in principle, carry out a commercial act on their own account. The firm therefore checks who signed, in what capacity and on whose behalf, before discussing the applicable regime.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Is registration in the trade register enough to make a person a trader?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Registration of an individual gives rise to a presumption of trader status (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219293\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219293\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 123-7 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). The presumption is not absolute: third parties and administrations may adduce proof to the contrary, and they cannot rely on it if they knew that the registered person was not a trader.<\/p><p>Absence of registration has the opposite effect. A person required to register who has not applied for registration within fifteen days of starting activity cannot, until registered, rely on trader status, but cannot invoke the lack of registration to escape the obligations attached to that status (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 123-8 of the Commercial Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>This asymmetry carries great weight in commercial leases, whose statutory regime requires, among other things, registration of the operator (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044056347\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044056347\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 145-1 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). In a case where the tenant claimed eviction compensation, the Court of Cassation upheld the refusal of that compensation on the ground that the company \u201cwas not, at the time the notice to quit was served, registered for the secondary establishment operated on the premises\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca5db8be79ae407b0af0b7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. 3e civ., 23 January 2020, No. 19-11.215<\/a>) (our translation). For the tenant, the outcome is unfavourable. The firm therefore checks the registration of each establishment, and not only that of the head office.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Which acts are commercial even when carried out by a non-trader?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Article L. 110-1 of the Commercial Code lists the acts that the law deems commercial acts (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044072567\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044072567\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-1<\/a>). Some are so by their object, such as the purchase of movable property for resale or banking and brokerage operations. Others are commercial between all persons, whatever the status of their author: the bill of exchange and, since 1 January 2022, the guarantee of a commercial debt.<\/p><p>Case law adds the transfer of control of a commercial company. The Court of Cassation holds that \u201cAgreements that transfer control of a commercial company are commercial in nature, even where they are not concluded between traders, and the obligations undertaken by the sellers are performed jointly and severally\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/64eee0a101e49dd969c48aa4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 30 August 2023, No. 22-10.466<\/a>) (our translation). In that case, the sale covered all the shares and the sellers' appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed.<\/p><p>This classification has practical consequences: the commercial court also rules on disputes concerning a commercial act, whatever the status of the persons involved (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044078679\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044078679\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 721-3 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). The firm therefore identifies the act in question before determining the court and the regime applicable to the debt.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>How can a commercial agreement concluded without a signed contract be proved?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>As regards traders, commercial acts may be proved by any means, unless a text provides otherwise (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-3 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). An agreement reached by email, an order placed by telephone and then delivered, or a series of invoices paid without reservation may thus establish the existence and content of a commercial act as regards a trader, unless a text provides otherwise.<\/p><p>Accounting plays a particular role. If properly kept, it may be admitted in court as evidence between traders for commercial matters; if irregularly kept, it cannot be relied on by its author in their own favour (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219341\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219341\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 123-23 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). The same text limits the cases in which the judge may order the production of accounting documents.<\/p><p>Freedom of evidence does not remove the need for consistency. The judge assesses the value of each item, and an invoice issued by the party claiming payment does not, on its own, amount to the other party's agreement. The firm therefore assembles documents that come from both sides: signed purchase order, delivery receipt, partial payment, an exchange acknowledging the service. It is their dated and ordered consistency that makes it possible to demonstrate the agreement and its scope.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can a trader rely on freedom of evidence against a private client?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The rule of freedom of evidence applies as regards traders (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-3 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). Where the act is commercial for one party and civil for the other, it is called a mixed act, and each party keeps its own regime. Against a private individual, a legal act concerning a sum above the amount set by decree must in principle be proved by a written document (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032042311\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032042311\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1359 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>Conversely, the private individual may rely on this freedom against the trader, since the text refers to evidence as regards traders (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-3<\/a>). The same difference appears in the clauses of the contract. A clause designating the territorially competent court operates only between parties who have all contracted as traders (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006410147\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006410147\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 48 of the Code of Civil Procedure<\/a>), and an arbitration clause cannot be enforced against a party who did not contract in the course of their professional activity (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033458809\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033458809\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 2061 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>A trader dealing with non-professionals therefore has an interest in keeping signed documents for significant commitments. Before any action, the firm checks whether the required written document exists, whether a commencement of proof in writing can be relied on, and which court can be seised against the non-trader party.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>What is the time limit for claiming payment of a commercial obligation?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The general limitation period is five years for commitments arising from commercial activity, whether the creditor dealt with another trader or with a non-trader, although a special text may provide a shorter period (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000027725867\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000027725867\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 110-4 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). The starting point follows the general rule: the day on which the right-holder knew or should have known the facts enabling them to exercise it (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000019017112\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 2224 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>The date of the invoice is not always decisive. In a judgment unfavourable to the service provider, the Court of Cassation held the claim barred by limitation and upheld the court of appeal, which had found that \u201cthe client's obligation to pay arises when the service ordered has been performed\u201d, \u201cregardless of the date on which it had decided to issue its invoice\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca5b69db77e732f3ddad05\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 26 February 2020, No. 18-25.036<\/a>) (our translation). The provider, who had been late in invoicing, had its claim for payment declared barred by limitation.<\/p><p>In another case, the seller had itself set the payment due date on its invoice. The Court of Cassation upheld the judgment holding that \u201cthe seller's claim fell due from that date\u201d, the starting point of the limitation period (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/64895b1c6926a605db238d72\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 14 June 2023, No. 21-14.841<\/a>) (our translation). The firm therefore reconstructs the performance date, the invoicing date and the due date before any claim.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Are several debtors of a commercial debt jointly and severally liable?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>The Civil Code provides that joint and several liability is statutory or contractual and is not presumed (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041986\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041986\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1310 of the Civil Code<\/a>). The Court of Cassation nonetheless finds joint and several liability between sellers who transfer control of a commercial company, absent a clause expressly excluding it, the sale being a commercial act (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/64eee0a101e49dd969c48aa4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 30 August 2023, No. 22-10.466<\/a>).<\/p><p>This presumption has precise limits. The Court of Cassation quashed a judgment that had given a buyer who had bought shares from only one of the sellers the benefit of joint and several liability of all the sellers under a liabilities warranty, recalling, under the former text, that \u201cjoint and several liability is not presumed; it must be expressly stipulated\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/65b0b6038d0ccf000877e232\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 24 January 2024, No. 20-13.755<\/a>) (our translation).<\/p><p>It has also held that \u201cactive joint and several liability is not presumed\u201d between several creditors of the same guarantee, so that the action of one had not interrupted the limitation period for the benefit of another (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca85e0a8ef0376a5ff648c\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 26 September 2018, No. 16-28.133<\/a>) (our translation). The firm therefore examines separately the position of each debtor and each creditor, as well as the clauses of the deed, before claiming the whole amount from a single person.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Does a business partner's silence amount to acceptance?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Silence does not amount to acceptance, unless the law, customs, business dealings or particular circumstances provide otherwise (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032040861\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032040861\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1120 of the Civil Code<\/a>). Between traders, there is a strong temptation to consider that a new condition that was notified and not contested has been accepted. Case law requires more.<\/p><p>The Court of Cassation quashed a judgment that had held a service provider bound by a new invoicing method on which it had not commented. It recalls that \u201csilence does not in itself amount to acceptance, unless particular circumstances make it possible to give it that meaning\u201d, and criticises the judges for not having identified those circumstances (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/67bebe8bab77563075a593d4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 26 February 2025, No. 23-21.063<\/a>) (our translation). The provider's payment claims were sent back to another court of appeal.<\/p><p>In practice, a party who wishes to amend a commercial contract must obtain express agreement or gather evidence showing that the other party accepted the change. The firm examines the history of the relationship, the exchanges and subsequent performance, then indicates whether silence can, in that particular file, be given any effect.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Can a professional custom be imposed on the other contracting party?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Contracts bind the parties not only to what is expressed in them but also to all the consequences that equity, custom or the law attach to them (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041309\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041309\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1194 of the Civil Code<\/a>). In commercial law, the customs of a profession often supplement the contract, notably for time limits, tolerances, delivery arrangements or the allocation of certain tasks.<\/p><p>The Court of Cassation specifies their scope as regards someone outside the profession: \u201cthe customs developed by a profession are intended to govern, unless otherwise agreed, not only relations between its members, but also those of the latter with persons outside that profession, provided it is established that the latter, having been aware of them, accepted them\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/651e572049b1728318750378\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 4 October 2023, No. 22-15.685<\/a>) (our translation). In that case, the quote and the invoice referred to customs filed with the registry of the Paris commercial court, and the buyer had paid without comment: the appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed.<\/p><p>The burden of proving the custom, awareness of it and its acceptance lies on the party who relies on it. The firm therefore looks for the reference documents, the wording on quotes and invoices, and the date on which the other party became aware of it.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>What should be checked before paying the price of a business?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Apart from a contribution to a company (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000047591386\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000047591386\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 141-21<\/a>) and a sale ordered by the court in judicial liquidation (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044053022\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044053022\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 642-5<\/a>), the sale of a business must be published within fifteen days of its date, at the buyer's initiative, in a legal notices medium and in the Official Bulletin of Civil and Commercial Notices (BODACC) (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038584414\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038584414\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 141-12 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). On pain of nullity, this publication must be preceded by registration of the deed, unless it is a notarial deed, or, where there is no deed, by the tax declaration provided for by the text (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000031010576\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000031010576\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 141-13<\/a>).<\/p><p>Within ten days following the last publication, any creditor of the seller, whether or not its claim is due, may lodge an opposition to payment of the price, although the landlord may not do so for current or future rent (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388390\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388390\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 141-14<\/a>). A buyer who pays before this period expires is not discharged as regards third parties (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388383\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388383\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 141-17<\/a>). The Court of Cassation infers from this that \u201cpayment made to the seller of the business, before the expiry of the opposition period, cannot be relied on against them\u201d, whether or not the creditors lodged an opposition (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/64085bc466b1bafb02f11fa6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 8 March 2023, No. 21-18.677<\/a>) (our translation). In that case, the buyer had paid part of the price directly to the seller, who was subsequently placed in judicial liquidation.<\/p><p>To avoid paying twice, the buyer may provide that the price will be held by an escrow agent until the period expires and, in the event of opposition, until it is lifted or until the authorisation to receive the price that the seller may obtain from the urgent applications judge where the opposition is made without title and without cause or is void in form (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000031010552\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000031010552\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 141-16<\/a>). The firm also checks the statement of registered charges, in particular pledges over the business (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044072497\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044072497\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 142-1 of the Commercial Code<\/a>), before any release of funds.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Does the buyer of a business take over the seller's debts and claims?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>No, unless there is an express clause or a statutory exception. The Court of Cassation holds that, absent an express clause, \u201cthe sale of a business does not automatically carry with it the obligations to which the seller may be bound under commitments initially entered into by the seller\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/653a039bd0451e8318d0e6d1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 25 October 2023, No. 21-20.156<\/a>) (our translation). It adds that the same applies to claims held by the seller before the sale, and quashed the judgment that had inferred their transfer from a general clause taking over assets and liabilities.<\/p><p>This rule protects the buyer against liabilities it has not accepted, but it also requires the takeover clauses to be drafted precisely. If the buyer wishes to recover a claim of the seller, the deed must provide for this clearly, and the assignment can be relied on against the debtor only if the debtor has consented to it, has been notified of it or has acknowledged it (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032042011\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032042011\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1324 of the Civil Code<\/a>), the judgment having ruled on a 2015 transaction governed by former Article 1690. To continue a contract outside a transfer provided for by law, the agreement of the other contracting party and a written document are required, on pain of nullity (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041419\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041419\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 1216 of the Civil Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>Some exceptions result from specific texts, which the judgment expressly reserves. The firm lists the contracts, debts and claims attached to the business, then examines, for each, whether the law organises its transfer or whether an express clause is needed.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Is the owner of a business let under a management lease liable for the manager's debts?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>Until the management lease is published, the lessor of the business is jointly and severally liable with the lessee-manager for the debts the latter incurs in operating the business (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033613919\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033613919\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 144-7 of the Commercial Code<\/a>). Publication therefore conditions the owner's protection as regards the manager's suppliers and partners.<\/p><p>The register plays a comparable role when a trader stops operating. A registered trader who sells their business or grants its operation, notably under a management lease, can plead the cessation of their activity to escape actions based on their successor's obligations only from the deregistration or the corresponding entry (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article L. 123-8 of the Commercial Code<\/a>).<\/p><p>A creditor who dealt with a lessee-manager therefore checks the date the contract was published and the state of the register on the day its claim arose. The owner of the business, for its part, keeps proof of these formalities. The firm compares these dates with those of the orders and invoices concerned, then determines against whom the claim can be brought and to what extent.<\/p><\/div><\/details><details><summary>Is a clause giving jurisdiction to the Paris courts valid between companies?<\/summary><div class=\"a\"><p>To set aside the ordinary rules of territorial jurisdiction, the clause must meet two conditions: it must have been agreed by parties who have all contracted as traders, and it must appear in very prominent characters in the commitment of the party against whom it is invoked (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006410147\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006410147\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Article 48 of the Code of Civil Procedure<\/a>). A legible clause is not always enough: the Court of Cassation requires an examination of its presentation, \u201chaving regard to the physical conditions of its presentation, taking account of the typography of the text in which it\u201d appears (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fd9063fc35f4b9e15295d16\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 20 April 2017, No. 15-20.908<\/a>) (our translation).<\/p><p>Designation of the Paris courts has, by contrast, been held sufficient between two commercial companies, because \u201cthe nature of the court chosen, namely the Paris commercial court, could be determined by the mere fact that the parties were commercial companies\u201d (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courdecassation.fr\/decision\/5fca3180dd69e4a2e37f16c1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cass. com., 30 September 2020, No. 19-10.423<\/a>) (our translation). The case was sent back to the Paris Court of Appeal.<\/p><p>In Paris, the commercial court is among the twelve courts designated as economic activities courts (tribunaux des activit\u00e9s \u00e9conomiques) for a four-year experiment that began on 1 January 2025 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/loda\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049918301\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/loda\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049918301\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">Order of 5 July 2024, Articles 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/loda\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049918304\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" class=\"kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/loda\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049918304\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\">2<\/a>). The firm checks the clause, the status of the parties and the exact competent court before any court action.<\/p><\/div><\/details><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><div class=\"kcv-slide\" id=\"kcv-textes\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"kcv-t-kcv-textes\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<p class=\"kk\">Sources and related pages<\/p>\n<h2>Official texts and <em>related pages<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"kcv-lead\">The sources for this page and the firm's related areas of practice.<\/p>\n<div class=\"kcv-arts\"><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044072567\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044072567\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 110-1 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">list of commercial acts<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219127\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 110-3 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">proof by any means as regards traders<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000027725867\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000027725867\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 110-4 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">five-year limitation period for commercial obligations<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219167\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 121-1 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">definition of a trader<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219293\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219293\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 123-7 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">presumption attached to registration<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219294\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 123-8 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">effects of failure to register<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219341\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006219341\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 123-23 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">evidential value of accounting records<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038584414\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000038584414\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 141-12 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">publication of the sale of the business<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388390\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388390\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 141-14 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">opposition by the seller's creditors<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388383\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033388383\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 141-17 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">premature payment of the price<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033613919\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000033613919\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 144-7 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">joint and several liability of the lessor of the business<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044078679\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000044078679\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article L. 721-3 of the Commercial Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">jurisdiction of the commercial courts<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006410147\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000006410147\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article 48 of the Code of Civil Procedure<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">territorial jurisdiction clause<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041986\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032041986\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article 1310 of the Civil Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">joint and several liability is not presumed<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032040861\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/codes\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000032040861\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Article 1120 of the Civil Code<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">silence and acceptance<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-art kohen-legifrance-popup-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/loda\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049918304\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-kohen-legifrance-url=\"https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/loda\/article_lc\/LEGIARTI000049918304\" data-kohen-legifrance-title=\"Texte officiel Legifrance\"><span class=\"kcv-art-n\">Order of 5 July 2024, Article 2<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-t\">designated economic activities courts<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n<h3 class=\"kcv-center\">Further reading<\/h3>\n<div class=\"kcv-pgs\"><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/business-law-attorneys-paris-75017\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Business law<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/commercial-litigation-lawyer-paris\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Commercial litigation<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/commercial-lease-lawyer-paris\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Commercial lease<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/unpaid-invoice-lawyer-paris\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Unpaid invoice<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><a class=\"kcv-pg\" href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/distribution-agreement-lawyer-paris\/\"><span class=\"kcv-pg-t\">Distribution agreements<\/span><span class=\"kcv-pg-s\">Firm practice area<\/span><span class=\"kcv-art-a\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M7 17 17 7M9 7h8v8\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"kcv-small kcv-center\">Page updated on 1 November 2026.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"kcv-cta\">\n  <div class=\"kcv-in\">\n    <div class=\"kcv-cta-card\">\n      <h2>A commercial law question to settle? <em>Take stock today<\/em>.<\/h2>\n      <p>Send the contracts, invoices, register extracts and exchanges you have already gathered: the firm examines the classification of the parties and the act, then the applicable evidence and time limit.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"kcv-btns\">\n        <a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-tel\" href=\"tel:+33646605822\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"currentColor\" stroke=\"none\" stroke-width=\"0\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 16.9v3a2 2 0 0 1-2.2 2 19.8 19.8 0 0 1-8.6-3.1 19.5 19.5 0 0 1-6-6A19.8 19.8 0 0 1 2.1 4.2 2 2 0 0 1 4.1 2h3a2 2 0 0 1 2 1.7c.1.9.4 1.8.7 2.7a2 2 0 0 1-.5 2.1L8 9.8a16 16 0 0 0 6 6l1.3-1.3a2 2 0 0 1 2.1-.4c.9.3 1.8.6 2.7.7a2 2 0 0 1 1.7 2z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Call the firm<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">06&nbsp;46&nbsp;60&nbsp;58&nbsp;22<\/span><\/span><\/a>\n        <a class=\"kcv-fb kcv-fb-mail\" href=\"#kch-form\"><span class=\"kcv-fb-orb\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" width=\"24\" height=\"24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"2.5\" y=\"4.5\" width=\"19\" height=\"15\" rx=\"2.5\"\/><path d=\"m3.5 6.5 8.5 6.5 8.5-6.5\"\/><\/svg><\/span><span class=\"kcv-fb-txt\">Send your documents<span class=\"kcv-fb-n\">confidential form<\/span><\/span><\/a>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"kcv-news-band\"><h2>The latest <em>news.<\/em><\/h2><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\": \"https:\/\/schema.org\", \"@type\": \"FAQPage\", \"mainEntity\": [{\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Who has trader status under the Commercial Code?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The Commercial Code sets two cumulative conditions: carrying out commercial acts and making them one's regular profession (Article L. 121-1 of the Commercial Code). A single act, even one that is commercial by nature, is therefore not enough to make a person a trader. The repetition, duration and professional character of the activity are examined on documents. The Court of Cassation recalled this in a case concerning a founding shareholder who had transferred control of their company and granted a warranty and indemnity agreement (garantie d'actif et de passif). It upheld the judgment holding that \u201cthose acts were not sufficient, given their limited number, to show that Mr Y... had made them his regular profession, so that he was not a trader\u201d (Cass. com., 29 January 2020, No. 19-12.584) (our translation). For the company that sought to treat him as a trader, the decision is unfavourable: the appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed. A company officer who signs in the company's name does not, in principle, carry out a commercial act on their own account. The firm therefore checks who signed, in what capacity and on whose behalf, before discussing the applicable regime.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Is registration in the trade register enough to make a person a trader?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Registration of an individual gives rise to a presumption of trader status (Article L. 123-7 of the Commercial Code). The presumption is not absolute: third parties and administrations may adduce proof to the contrary, and they cannot rely on it if they knew that the registered person was not a trader. Absence of registration has the opposite effect. A person required to register who has not applied for registration within fifteen days of starting activity cannot, until registered, rely on trader status, but cannot invoke the lack of registration to escape the obligations attached to that status (Article L. 123-8 of the Commercial Code). This asymmetry carries great weight in commercial leases, whose statutory regime requires, among other things, registration of the operator (Article L. 145-1 of the Commercial Code). In a case where the tenant claimed eviction compensation, the Court of Cassation upheld the refusal of that compensation on the ground that the company \u201cwas not, at the time the notice to quit was served, registered for the secondary establishment operated on the premises\u201d (Cass. 3e civ., 23 January 2020, No. 19-11.215) (our translation). For the tenant, the outcome is unfavourable. The firm therefore checks the registration of each establishment, and not only that of the head office.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Which acts are commercial even when carried out by a non-trader?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Article L. 110-1 of the Commercial Code lists the acts that the law deems commercial acts (Article L. 110-1). Some are so by their object, such as the purchase of movable property for resale or banking and brokerage operations. Others are commercial between all persons, whatever the status of their author: the bill of exchange and, since 1 January 2022, the guarantee of a commercial debt. Case law adds the transfer of control of a commercial company. The Court of Cassation holds that \u201cAgreements that transfer control of a commercial company are commercial in nature, even where they are not concluded between traders, and the obligations undertaken by the sellers are performed jointly and severally\u201d (Cass. com., 30 August 2023, No. 22-10.466) (our translation). In that case, the sale covered all the shares and the sellers' appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed. This classification has practical consequences: the commercial court also rules on disputes concerning a commercial act, whatever the status of the persons involved (Article L. 721-3 of the Commercial Code). The firm therefore identifies the act in question before determining the court and the regime applicable to the debt.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"How can a commercial agreement concluded without a signed contract be proved?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"As regards traders, commercial acts may be proved by any means, unless a text provides otherwise (Article L. 110-3 of the Commercial Code). An agreement reached by email, an order placed by telephone and then delivered, or a series of invoices paid without reservation may thus establish the existence and content of a commercial act as regards a trader, unless a text provides otherwise. Accounting plays a particular role. If properly kept, it may be admitted in court as evidence between traders for commercial matters; if irregularly kept, it cannot be relied on by its author in their own favour (Article L. 123-23 of the Commercial Code). The same text limits the cases in which the judge may order the production of accounting documents. Freedom of evidence does not remove the need for consistency. The judge assesses the value of each item, and an invoice issued by the party claiming payment does not, on its own, amount to the other party's agreement. The firm therefore assembles documents that come from both sides: signed purchase order, delivery receipt, partial payment, an exchange acknowledging the service. It is their dated and ordered consistency that makes it possible to demonstrate the agreement and its scope.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can a trader rely on freedom of evidence against a private client?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The rule of freedom of evidence applies as regards traders (Article L. 110-3 of the Commercial Code). Where the act is commercial for one party and civil for the other, it is called a mixed act, and each party keeps its own regime. Against a private individual, a legal act concerning a sum above the amount set by decree must in principle be proved by a written document (Article 1359 of the Civil Code). Conversely, the private individual may rely on this freedom against the trader, since the text refers to evidence as regards traders (Article L. 110-3). The same difference appears in the clauses of the contract. A clause designating the territorially competent court operates only between parties who have all contracted as traders (Article 48 of the Code of Civil Procedure), and an arbitration clause cannot be enforced against a party who did not contract in the course of their professional activity (Article 2061 of the Civil Code). A trader dealing with non-professionals therefore has an interest in keeping signed documents for significant commitments. Before any action, the firm checks whether the required written document exists, whether a commencement of proof in writing can be relied on, and which court can be seized against the non-trader party.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"What is the time limit for claiming payment of a commercial obligation?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The general limitation period is five years for commitments arising from commercial activity, whether the creditor dealt with another trader or with a non-trader, although a special text may provide a shorter period (Article L. 110-4 of the Commercial Code). The starting point follows the general rule: the day on which the right-holder knew or should have known the facts enabling them to exercise it (Article 2224 of the Civil Code). The date of the invoice is not always decisive. In a judgment unfavourable to the service provider, the Court of Cassation held the claim barred by limitation and upheld the court of appeal, which had found that \u201cthe client's obligation to pay arises when the service ordered has been performed\u201d, \u201cregardless of the date on which it had decided to issue its invoice\u201d (Cass. com., 26 February 2020, No. 18-25.036) (our translation). The provider, who had been late in invoicing, had its claim for payment declared barred by limitation. In another case, the seller had itself set the payment due date on its invoice. The Court of Cassation upheld the judgment holding that \u201cthe seller's claim fell due from that date\u201d, the starting point of the limitation period (Cass. com., 14 June 2023, No. 21-14.841) (our translation). The firm therefore reconstructs the performance date, the invoicing date and the due date before any claim.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Are several debtors of a commercial debt jointly and severally liable?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"The Civil Code provides that joint and several liability is statutory or contractual and is not presumed (Article 1310 of the Civil Code). The Court of Cassation nonetheless finds joint and several liability between sellers who transfer control of a commercial company, absent a clause expressly excluding it, the sale being a commercial act (Cass. com., 30 August 2023, No. 22-10.466). This presumption has precise limits. The Court of Cassation quashed a judgment that had given a buyer who had bought shares from only one of the sellers the benefit of joint and several liability of all the sellers under a liabilities warranty, recalling, under the former text, that \u201cjoint and several liability is not presumed; it must be expressly stipulated\u201d (Cass. com., 24 January 2024, No. 20-13.755) (our translation). It has also held that \u201cactive joint and several liability is not presumed\u201d between several creditors of the same guarantee, so that the action of one had not interrupted the limitation period for the benefit of another (Cass. com., 26 September 2018, No. 16-28.133) (our translation). The firm therefore examines separately the position of each debtor and each creditor, as well as the clauses of the deed, before claiming the whole amount from a single person.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Does a business partner's silence amount to acceptance?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Silence does not amount to acceptance, unless the law, customs, business dealings or particular circumstances provide otherwise (Article 1120 of the Civil Code). Between traders, there is a strong temptation to consider that a new condition that was notified and not contested has been accepted. Case law requires more. The Court of Cassation quashed a judgment that had held a service provider bound by a new invoicing method on which it had not commented. It recalls that \u201csilence does not in itself amount to acceptance, unless particular circumstances make it possible to give it that meaning\u201d, and criticises the judges for not having identified those circumstances (Cass. com., 26 February 2025, No. 23-21.063) (our translation). The provider's payment claims were sent back to another court of appeal. In practice, a party who wishes to amend a commercial contract must obtain express agreement or gather evidence showing that the other party accepted the change. The firm examines the history of the relationship, the exchanges and subsequent performance, then indicates whether silence can, in that particular file, be given any effect.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Can a professional custom be imposed on the other contracting party?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Contracts bind the parties not only to what is expressed in them but also to all the consequences that equity, custom or the law attach to them (Article 1194 of the Civil Code). In commercial law, the customs of a profession often supplement the contract, notably for time limits, tolerances, delivery arrangements or the allocation of certain tasks. The Court of Cassation specifies their scope as regards someone outside the profession: \u201cthe customs developed by a profession are intended to govern, unless otherwise agreed, not only relations between its members, but also those of the latter with persons outside that profession, provided it is established that the latter, having been aware of them, accepted them\u201d (Cass. com., 4 October 2023, No. 22-15.685) (our translation). In that case, the quote and the invoice referred to customs filed with the registry of the Paris commercial court, and the buyer had paid without comment: the appeal to the Court of Cassation was dismissed. The burden of proving the custom, awareness of it and its acceptance lies on the party who relies on it. The firm therefore looks for the reference documents, the wording on quotes and invoices, and the date on which the other party became aware of it.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"What should be checked before paying the price of a business?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Apart from a contribution to a company (Article L. 141-21) and a sale ordered by the court in judicial liquidation (Article L. 642-5), the sale of a business must be published within fifteen days of its date, at the buyer's initiative, in a legal notices medium and in the Official Bulletin of Civil and Commercial Notices (BODACC) (Article L. 141-12 of the Commercial Code). On pain of nullity, this publication must be preceded by registration of the deed, unless it is a notarial deed, or, where there is no deed, by the tax declaration provided for by the text (Article L. 141-13). Within ten days following the last publication, any creditor of the seller, whether or not its claim is due, may lodge an opposition to payment of the price, although the landlord may not do so for current or future rent (Article L. 141-14). A buyer who pays before this period expires is not discharged as regards third parties (Article L. 141-17). The Court of Cassation infers from this that \u201cpayment made to the seller of the business, before the expiry of the opposition period, cannot be relied on against them\u201d, whether or not the creditors lodged an opposition (Cass. com., 8 March 2023, No. 21-18.677) (our translation). In that case, the buyer had paid part of the price directly to the seller, who was subsequently placed in judicial liquidation. To avoid paying twice, the buyer may provide that the price will be held by an escrow agent until the period expires and, in the event of opposition, until it is lifted or until the authorisation to receive the price that the seller may obtain from the urgent applications judge where the opposition is made without title and without cause or is void in form (Article L. 141-16). The firm also checks the statement of registered charges, in particular pledges over the business (Article L. 142-1 of the Commercial Code), before any release of funds.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Does the buyer of a business take over the seller's debts and claims?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"No, unless there is an express clause or a statutory exception. The Court of Cassation holds that, absent an express clause, \u201cthe sale of a business does not automatically carry with it the obligations to which the seller may be bound under commitments initially entered into by the seller\u201d (Cass. com., 25 October 2023, No. 21-20.156) (our translation). It adds that the same applies to claims held by the seller before the sale, and quashed the judgment that had inferred their transfer from a general clause taking over assets and liabilities. This rule protects the buyer against liabilities it has not accepted, but it also requires the takeover clauses to be drafted precisely. If the buyer wishes to recover a claim of the seller, the deed must provide for this clearly, and the assignment can be relied on against the debtor only if the debtor has consented to it, has been notified of it or has acknowledged it (Article 1324 of the Civil Code), the judgment having ruled on a 2015 transaction governed by former Article 1690. To continue a contract outside a transfer provided for by law, the agreement of the other contracting party and a written document are required, on pain of nullity (Article 1216 of the Civil Code). Some exceptions result from specific texts, which the judgment expressly reserves. The firm lists the contracts, debts and claims attached to the business, then examines, for each, whether the law organises its transfer or whether an express clause is needed.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Is the owner of a business let under a management lease liable for the manager's debts?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"Until the management lease is published, the lessor of the business is jointly and severally liable with the lessee-manager for the debts the latter incurs in operating the business (Article L. 144-7 of the Commercial Code). Publication therefore conditions the owner's protection as regards the manager's suppliers and partners. The register plays a comparable role when a trader stops operating. A registered trader who sells their business or grants its operation, notably under a management lease, can plead the cessation of their activity to escape actions based on their successor's obligations only from the deregistration or the corresponding entry (Article L. 123-8 of the Commercial Code). A creditor who dealt with a lessee-manager therefore checks the date the contract was published and the state of the register on the day its claim arose. The owner of the business, for its part, keeps proof of these formalities. The firm compares these dates with those of the orders and invoices concerned, then determines against whom the claim can be brought and to what extent.\"}}, {\"@type\": \"Question\", \"name\": \"Is a clause giving jurisdiction to the Paris courts valid between companies?\", \"acceptedAnswer\": {\"@type\": \"Answer\", \"text\": \"To set aside the ordinary rules of territorial jurisdiction, the clause must meet two conditions: it must have been agreed by parties who have all contracted as traders, and it must appear in very prominent characters in the commitment of the party against whom it is invoked (Article 48 of the Code of Civil Procedure). A legible clause is not always enough: the Court of Cassation requires an examination of its presentation, \u201chaving regard to the physical conditions of its presentation, taking account of the typography of the text in which it\u201d appears (Cass. com., 20 April 2017, No. 15-20.908) (our translation). Designation of the Paris courts has, by contrast, been held sufficient between two commercial companies, because \u201cthe nature of the court chosen, namely the Paris commercial court, could be determined by the mere fact that the parties were commercial companies\u201d (Cass. com., 30 September 2020, No. 19-10.423) (our translation). The case was sent back to the Paris Court of Appeal. In Paris, the commercial court is among the twelve courts designated as economic activities courts (tribunaux des activit\u00e9s \u00e9conomiques) for a four-year experiment that began on 1 January 2025 (Order of 5 July 2024, Articles 1 and 2). The firm checks the clause, the status of the parties and the exact competent court before any court action.\"}}]}<\/script><script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\": \"https:\/\/schema.org\", \"@type\": \"LegalService\", \"name\": \"Commercial law lawyer in Paris \u2014 Kohen Avocats\", \"url\": \"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/commercial-law-lawyer-paris\/\", \"telephone\": \"+33646605822\", \"email\": \"contact@kohenavocats.fr\", \"address\": {\"@type\": \"PostalAddress\", \"streetAddress\": \"11 rue Margueritte\", \"postalCode\": \"75017\", \"addressLocality\": \"Paris\", \"addressCountry\": \"FR\"}, \"areaServed\": \"Paris region (\u00cele-de-France)\", \"founder\": {\"@type\": \"Person\", \"name\": \"Reda Kohen\", \"jobTitle\": \"Lawyer at the Paris Bar\", \"sameAs\": [\"https:\/\/consultation.avocat.fr\/avocat-paris\/reda-kohen-54670.html\"]}, \"openingHours\": \"Mo-Su 00:00-24:00\"}<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element 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h3,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h4,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h5,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h6,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 .elementor-heading-title {\n    line-height: 1.25 !important;\n    font-size: 0.8em !important;\n  }\n}\n@media (min-width: 769px) and (max-width: 1200px) {\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n    font-size: 0.9em;\n  }\n  \n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h1,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h2,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h3,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h4,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h5,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h6,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 .elementor-heading-title {\n    line-height: 1.3 !important;\n    font-size: 0.85em !important;\n  }\n}\n@media (min-width: 1201px) {\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n    font-size: 0.95em;\n  }\n  \n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h1,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h2,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h3,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h4,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h5,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 h6,\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 .elementor-heading-title {\n    line-height: 1.35 !important;\n    font-size: 0.9em !important;\n  }\n}\n\/* M\u00e9dia queries pour le texte normal *\/\n@media (max-width: 768px) {\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n    line-height: 1.6;\n  }\n}\n@media (min-width: 769px) and (max-width: 1200px) {\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n    line-height: 1.65;\n  }\n}\n@media (min-width: 1201px) {\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n    line-height: 1.75;\n  }\n}\n\/* Filtre noir semi-transparent - \u00c9tat initial visible, maintenu au hover *\/\n\/* Z-INDEX 1 : au-dessus du flou mais en dessous du texte *\/\n.elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836::before {\n  content: '';\n  position: absolute;\n  inset: 0;\n  background: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.6);\n  backdrop-filter: blur(0px);\n  opacity: 1;\n  pointer-events: none;\n  z-index: 1;\n  transition: backdrop-filter 1.2s cubic-bezier(0.25, 0.1, 0.25, 1);\n  will-change: backdrop-filter;\n}\n\/* Brillance + flou - \u00c9tat initial invisible *\/\n\/* Z-INDEX 0 : en dessous de la teinte noire *\/\n.elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836::after {\n  content: '';\n  position: absolute;\n  inset: 0;\n  background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);\n  box-shadow: \n    inset 0.5px 0.5px 0.5px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, 0),\n    inset -0.5px -0.5px 0.5px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);\n  opacity: 0;\n  pointer-events: none;\n  z-index: 0;\n  transition: all 1.2s cubic-bezier(0.25, 0.1, 0.25, 1);\n}\n\/* ACTIVATION AU HOVER *\/\n.elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:hover {\n  box-shadow: 0 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2), 0 0 20px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);\n  transform: translateY(-2px);\n}\n.elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:hover::before {\n  backdrop-filter: blur(8px);\n}\n.elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:hover::after {\n  background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.25);\n  box-shadow: \n    inset 0.5px 0.5px 0.5px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.15),\n    inset -0.5px -0.5px 0.5px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.15);\n  opacity: 1;\n} \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n  .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n    flex-shrink: 0 !important;\n    scroll-snap-align: start !important;\n    width: clamp(300px, 30vw, 400px) !important;\n    min-width: 300px !important;\n  }\n\n  @media (max-width: 767px) {\n    .elementor-1983483 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 {\n      width: 350px !important;\n      min-width: 350px !important;\n      max-width: 350px !important;\n    }\n  }\/* End custom CSS *\/<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2157105 post-2157105 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/25\/foreign-business-france-vat-registration-fiscal-representative-challenge-abroad\/\">Your Foreign Business Owes French VAT Without a French Company: Registration, Fiscal Representative and How to Challenge the Bill From Abroad<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. Nettoyer les liens DANS le texte (Expos\u00e9 des motifs, etc.)\n        const content = card.querySelector('.elementor-widget-theme-post-content');\n        if (content) {\n            const links = content.querySelectorAll('a');\n            links.forEach(link => {\n                \/\/ Remplace le lien <a href=\"...\">Texte<\/a> par un simple <span>Texte<\/span>\n                const span = document.createElement('span');\n                span.innerHTML = link.innerHTML;\n                link.replaceWith(span);\n            });\n        }\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<style id=\"loop-dynamic-1983483\">.e-loop-item-2157083 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:not(.elementor-motion-effects-element-type-background), .e-loop-item-2157083 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 > .elementor-motion-effects-container > .elementor-motion-effects-layer{background-image:url(\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/tim-schmidbauer-EnC5f7At4ac-unsplash-1-scaled.webp\");}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2157083 post-2157083 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/25\/foreign-company-france-unpaid-invoice-penalties-injonction-payer-abroad\/\">Your French Client Has Not Paid: Late-Payment Penalties, the 40 Euro Fee and the Injunction-to-Pay While You Live Abroad<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. Nettoyer les liens DANS le texte (Expos\u00e9 des motifs, etc.)\n        const content = card.querySelector('.elementor-widget-theme-post-content');\n        if (content) {\n            const links = content.querySelectorAll('a');\n            links.forEach(link => {\n                \/\/ Remplace le lien <a href=\"...\">Texte<\/a> par un simple <span>Texte<\/span>\n                const span = document.createElement('span');\n                span.innerHTML = link.innerHTML;\n                link.replaceWith(span);\n            });\n        }\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<style id=\"loop-dynamic-1983483\">.e-loop-item-2157055 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:not(.elementor-motion-effects-element-type-background), .e-loop-item-2157055 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 > .elementor-motion-effects-container > .elementor-motion-effects-layer{background-image:url(\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/allison-saeng-Hpw4nI_QUWQ-unsplash-scaled.webp\");}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2157055 post-2157055 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/25\/foreign-company-france-corporate-bank-account-refusal-abroad\/\">Your French Bank Won&#8217;t Open a Corporate Account While You Live Abroad: Right to an Account, Banque de France Designation and the Anti-Money-Laundering Wall<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. 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Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. Nettoyer les liens DANS le texte (Expos\u00e9 des motifs, etc.)\n        const content = card.querySelector('.elementor-widget-theme-post-content');\n        if (content) {\n            const links = content.querySelectorAll('a');\n            links.forEach(link => {\n                \/\/ Remplace le lien <a href=\"...\">Texte<\/a> par un simple <span>Texte<\/span>\n                const span = document.createElement('span');\n                span.innerHTML = link.innerHTML;\n                link.replaceWith(span);\n            });\n        }\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<style id=\"loop-dynamic-1983483\">.e-loop-item-2156702 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:not(.elementor-motion-effects-element-type-background), .e-loop-item-2156702 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 > .elementor-motion-effects-container > .elementor-motion-effects-layer{background-image:url(\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/pawel-czerwinski-mIT9kEQBC6Q-unsplash-scaled.webp\");}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2156702 post-2156702 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/24\/foreign-company-france-hire-first-employee-dpae-contract-trial-pay-abroad\/\">Hiring Your First French Employee While You Live Abroad: DPAE, Contract, Trial Period, Pay and Registration<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. Nettoyer les liens DANS le texte (Expos\u00e9 des motifs, etc.)\n        const content = card.querySelector('.elementor-widget-theme-post-content');\n        if (content) {\n            const links = content.querySelectorAll('a');\n            links.forEach(link => {\n                \/\/ Remplace le lien <a href=\"...\">Texte<\/a> par un simple <span>Texte<\/span>\n                const span = document.createElement('span');\n                span.innerHTML = link.innerHTML;\n                link.replaceWith(span);\n            });\n        }\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<style id=\"loop-dynamic-1983483\">.e-loop-item-2156668 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:not(.elementor-motion-effects-element-type-background), .e-loop-item-2156668 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 > .elementor-motion-effects-container > .elementor-motion-effects-layer{background-image:url(\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/alex-vasey-F5HtPjpBb9k-unsplash-scaled.webp\");}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2156668 post-2156668 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/24\/foreign-company-france-management-fees-transfer-pricing-file-defence-abroad\/\">Your French Subsidiary Pays Management Fees to Its Foreign Parent While You Live Abroad: Transfer Pricing File, Deduction and Reassessment Defence<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. 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Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. Nettoyer les liens DANS le texte (Expos\u00e9 des motifs, etc.)\n        const content = card.querySelector('.elementor-widget-theme-post-content');\n        if (content) {\n            const links = content.querySelectorAll('a');\n            links.forEach(link => {\n                \/\/ Remplace le lien <a href=\"...\">Texte<\/a> par un simple <span>Texte<\/span>\n                const span = document.createElement('span');\n                span.innerHTML = link.innerHTML;\n                link.replaceWith(span);\n            });\n        }\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<style id=\"loop-dynamic-1983483\">.e-loop-item-2156579 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:not(.elementor-motion-effects-element-type-background), .e-loop-item-2156579 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 > .elementor-motion-effects-container > .elementor-motion-effects-layer{background-image:url(\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/viktor-forgacs-5j8nd3QpRbo-unsplash-scaled.webp\");}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2156579 post-2156579 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/24\/foreign-company-france-close-dissolution-liquidation-tax-radiation-abroad\/\">Closing Your French Company From Abroad: Voluntary Dissolution, Friendly Liquidation, Tax Clearance and Striking Off<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. Nettoyer les liens DANS le texte (Expos\u00e9 des motifs, etc.)\n        const content = card.querySelector('.elementor-widget-theme-post-content');\n        if (content) {\n            const links = content.querySelectorAll('a');\n            links.forEach(link => {\n                \/\/ Remplace le lien <a href=\"...\">Texte<\/a> par un simple <span>Texte<\/span>\n                const span = document.createElement('span');\n                span.innerHTML = link.innerHTML;\n                link.replaceWith(span);\n            });\n        }\n    });\n});\n<\/script>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<style id=\"loop-dynamic-1983483\">.e-loop-item-2156527 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836:not(.elementor-motion-effects-element-type-background), .e-loop-item-2156527 .elementor-element.elementor-element-5bca5836 > .elementor-motion-effects-container > .elementor-motion-effects-layer{background-image:url(\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/mohamed-nohassi-vGTXy8FS7b0-unsplash-scaled.webp\");}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"loop-item\" data-elementor-id=\"1983483\" class=\"elementor elementor-1983483 e-loop-item e-loop-item-2156527 post-2156527 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-decryptage category-doing-business-in-france\" data-elementor-post-type=\"elementor_library\" data-custom-edit-handle=\"1\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5bca5836 card-item e-ecs-flex e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5bca5836\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;ecs_container_type&quot;:&quot;flex&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-daf2e8 card-title elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"daf2e8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kohenavocats.fr\/en\/2026\/10\/24\/foreign-company-france-subsidiary-insolvent-director-liability-45-days-abroad\/\">Your French Subsidiary Goes Insolvent While You Live Abroad: 45-Day Filing, Director Liability and Sanctions Defence<\/a><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7e11a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"b7e11a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t <script>\n  (function() {\n    let attempts = 0;\n    const maxAttempts = 20; \/\/ 20 tentatives = 10 secondes max\n\n    function tryClean() {\n      attempts++;\n      console.log('Tentative', attempts);\n\n      \/\/ Cherche TOUS les conteneurs possibles\n      const containers = document.querySelectorAll(\n        '.elementor-widget-theme-post-content .elementor-widget-container, ' +\n        '.card-item [class*=\"post-content\"], ' +\n        '.elementor-loop-container [class*=\"widget-container\"]'\n      );\n\n      console.log('Conteneurs trouv\u00e9s:', containers.length);\n\n      if (containers.length === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        \/\/ R\u00e9essaye dans 500ms\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n        return;\n      }\n\n      let cleaned = 0;\n\n      containers.forEach(function(container) {\n        const html = container.innerHTML;\n\n        if (html && html.includes('Expos\u00e9 des motifs')) {\n          console.log('Nettoyage en cours...');\n          const parts = html.split('Expos\u00e9 des motifs');\n          if (parts[1]) {\n            container.innerHTML = parts[1].trim();\n            cleaned++;\n          }\n        }\n      });\n\n      console.log('Cartes nettoy\u00e9es:', cleaned);\n\n      \/\/ Si rien n'a \u00e9t\u00e9 nettoy\u00e9 et qu'on a encore des tentatives\n      if (cleaned === 0 && attempts < maxAttempts) {\n        setTimeout(tryClean, 500);\n      }\n    }\n\n    \/\/ Lance au chargement\n    if (document.readyState === 'loading') {\n      document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', tryClean);\n    } else {\n      tryClean();\n    }\n  })();\n  <\/script>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bcaeb6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"bcaeb6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<script>\ndocument.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n    \n    \/\/ 1. Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. 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Rendre la carte cliquable (Simule le lien)\n    const cards = document.querySelectorAll('.card-item');\n    \n    cards.forEach(card => {\n        card.style.cursor = 'pointer';\n        \n        \/\/ On cherche l'URL dans le titre de la carte\n        const titleLink = card.querySelector('.card-title a');\n        let url = titleLink ? titleLink.href : null;\n\n        if (url) {\n            \/\/ Clic sur toute la carte\n            card.addEventListener('click', function(e) {\n                \/\/ Si on ne clique pas d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur un bouton ou un autre lien valide\n                if (!e.target.closest('a') && !e.target.closest('button')) {\n                    window.location.href = url;\n                }\n            });\n        }\n\n        \/\/ 2. 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